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Participle#Types of participle
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Participle#Types of participle
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{{Short description|Form of a verb which is used in a sentence to modify a noun or noun phrase}}{{More citations needed|date=July 2020}}In linguistics, a participle ({{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|participium}}|a sharing, partaking}}; abbr. {{sc|ptcp}}) is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives.weblink SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms More narrowly, participle has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face".Crystal, David. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing."Participle" is a traditional grammatical term from Greek and Latin that is widely used for corresponding verb forms in European languages and analogous forms in Sanskrit and Arabic grammar. In particular, Greek and Latin participles are inflected for gender, number and case, but also conjugated for tense and voice and can take prepositional and adverbial modifiers.Cross-linguistically, participles may have a range of functions apart from adjectival modification. In European and Indian languages, the past participle is used to form the passive voice. In English, participles are also associated with periphrastic verb forms (continuous and perfect) and are widely used in adverbial clauses. In non-Indo-European languages, 'participle' has been applied to forms that are alternatively regarded as converbs (see Sirenik below), gerunds, gerundives, transgressives, and nominalised verbs in complement clauses. As a result, 'participles' have come to be associated with a broad variety of syntactic constructions.- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Etymology
The word participle comes from classical Latin ,{{L&S|participium|ref}} from 'sharing, participation', because it shares certain properties of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The Latin grammatical term is a calque of the Greek grammatical term : metochÄ, 'participation, participle'.{{LSJ|metoxh/|μεÏοÏή|ref}}Oxford English Dictionary, s.v.The linguistic term, past participle, was coined circa 1798WEB,weblink Past participle Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster, based on its participial form, whose morphology equates to the regular form of preterite verbs. The term, present participle, was first used circa 1864WEB,weblink Present participle Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster, to facilitate grammatical distinctions. Despite the taxonomical use of "past" and "present" as associated with the aforementioned participles, their respective semantic use can entail any tense, regardless of aspect, depending on how they are structurally combined.Forms
Some languages have extensive participial systems but English has only two participial forms, most commonly termed:- past participle,WEB,weblink Past participle - Wiktionary, 11 November 2021, which is regularly formed with an -ed suffix (e.g. looked, ended, tutored) but has numerous irregular forms (e.g. broken, spoken, eaten); and
- present participle,WEB,weblink Present participle - Wiktionary, 10 February 2019, which is formed with an -ing suffix (e.g. breaking, making, understanding).
Types
Participles can be used adjectivally (i.e. without characteristics of canonical verbs) as attributive adjectives. Unlike standard verbs, participles donât typically have objects or the usual modifiers that verbs have. However, they can be modified by adverbs such as very or slightly. The difference is illustrated by the following examples:- The subject interesting him is Greek history.
- Greek history is an interesting subject.
- Greek history is a very interesting subject.
Tense
Participles are often used to form certain grammatical tenses or grammatical aspects. The two types of participle in Modern English are termed present participle and past participle, respectively (often also referred to as the -ing form and -ed/-en form).Crystal, David. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6th ed.), pp. 351-352. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. The traditional terms are misleading because the participles do not necessarily correspond to tense:Huddleston, Rodney. (2002). In Rodney Huddleston & Geoffrey K. Pullum (Eds.), The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (pp. 78-81). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. the present participle is often associated with the progressive (continuous) aspect, while the past participle is linked with the perfect aspect or passive voice. See the examples below:- They were just standing there.Participles â Present, Past and Perfect. Lingolia. Retrieved fromweblink
- By the time you get home, I will have cleaned the house.Hewings, Martin. (2005). Future continuous and future perfect (continuous). In Advanced Grammar in Use (2nd ed.), p. 22. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Voice
Participles may also be identified with a particular voice: active or passive. Some languages (such as Latin and Russian) have distinct participles for active and passive uses. In English, the present participle is essentially an active participle, and the past participle has both active and passive uses.The following examples illustrate those concepts:- I saw John eating his dinner. (Here eating is an active present participle).
- The bus has gone. (Here gone is an active past participle).
- The window was broken with a rock. (Here broken is a passive past participle)
Indo-European languages
Germanic languages
Early English
In Old English, past participles of Germanic strong verbs were marked with a ge- prefix, as are most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending -d, with or without an epenthetic vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although the ge- prefix, which became y- in Middle English, has now been lost â except in some rare dialects such as the Dorset dialect, where it takes the form of a-).Old English present participles were marked with an ending in -ende (or -iende for verbs whose infinitives ended in -ian).Middle English
In Middle English, the form of the present participle varied across regions: -ende (southwest, southeast, Midlands), -inde (southwest, southeast), -and (north), -inge (southeast). The last is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix -ing used to form verbal nouns. See -ing (etymology).Modern English
{{anchor|Modern English}}Modern English includes two traditional terms for its participles:Quirk et al., 3.9- The present participle, also sometimes called the active, imperfect, or progressive participle, takes the ending -ing, for example doing, seeing, working, running, breaking, understanding. It is identical in form to the verbal noun and gerund (see below). The term present participle is sometimes used to include the gerund;For example, Quirk et al., 4.12. the term "gerundâparticiple" is also used to indicate the verb form.
- The past participle, also sometimes called the passive or perfect participle, is identical to the past tense form (ending in -ed) in the case of regular verbs, for example "loaded", "boiled", "mounted", but takes various forms in the case of irregular verbs, such as done, sung, written, broken, understood, put, gone, etc.
- A broken window (i.e., one that has been broken)
- An interesting book (i.e., one that interests)
- An exciting adventure (i.e., one that excites)
- The attached files (i.e., those that are attached)
- A fallen tree (i.e., one that has fallen)
- Our fallen comrades (i.e., those who have fallen)
- A window broken by the wind (A window that was broken by the wind).
- A woman wearing a red hat (A woman who was wearing a red hat).
- The man standing over there is my uncle (The man who is standing over there is my uncle).
- We are a people clamoring for freedom (We are a people who are clamoring for freedom).
- Reviewing her bank statement, Ann started to cry (While she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
- Having reviewed the bank statement, Ann started to cry (After she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
- He shot the man, killing him (He shot the man and killed him).
- Maintained properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries (If/when they are maintained properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries).
- He and I having reconciled our differences, the project then proceeded smoothly (Because/after he and I had reconciled our differences, the project proceeded smoothly). (This is known as the nominative absolute construction.)
- Broadly speaking, the project was successful.
- Jim was sleeping.
- The chicken has eaten.
- The chicken was eaten.
- The chicken eaten by the children was contaminated.
- Eaten in this manner, the chicken presents no problem.
- The chicken eaten, we returned home.
- Flying planes can be dangerous.
Postpositive adjective>postpositive); adjectival|Passive |
Scandinavian languages
In all of the Scandinavian languages the past participle has to agree with the noun to some degree. All of the Scandinavian languages have mandatory agreement with the noun in number. Nynorsk and Swedish have mandatory agreement in both number and gender. Icelandic and Faroese have agreement in number, gender and case. The verb form used for the perfect (or "supine") aspect is generally identical to the nominative neuter singular form of the past participle for all verbs. For the present participle there is no agreement.Examples in Nynorsk:- Sjølvkøyrande bilar kan vere farlege. (English: self-driving cars can be dangerous)
- Kyllingen vart eten (English: The chicken was eaten)
- Dyret vart ete (English: The deer was eaten)
- Var maten etande? (English: Was the food edible?) (or rather: Was the food any good?)
- Utan servo vert bilen fort ukøyrande. (English: Without power steering, the car soon becomes impossible to drive.) (Lit: un-drivable)
Latin and Romance languages
Latin
Latin grammar was studied in Europe for hundreds of years, especially the handbook written by the 4th-century teacher Aelius Donatus, and it is from Latin that the name and concept of the participle derives. According to Donatus there are four participles in Latin, as follows:Donatus, Ars Minor: de participio.- present participle: present stem + -ns (gen. -ntis); e.g. legÄns (plural legentÄs) "(while) reading"
- perfect participle: supine stem + -us, -a, -um; e.g. lÄctus "read (by someone)"
- future participle: supine stem + -Å«rus, -Å«ra, -Å«rum; e.g. lÄctÅ«rus "going to read", "due to read"
- gerundive (sometimescf. Wheelock, pp. 106ff and 112 note; Allen & Greenough, p. 315. considered the future passive participle): e.g. legendus "due to be read", "necessary to be read"
- StrÄ«ctÅ gladiÅ ad dormientem LucrÄtiam vÄnit.Livy, 1.58.2"With drawn sword he came to the sleeping Lucretia."
- Balbus ad mÄ vÄnit currÄns.Cicero, ad Atticum 9.2a.3."Balbus came to me running."
- EÅ diÄ RÅmam ventÅ«rus erat.Cicero, pro Milone 28."On that day he was going to return to Rome."
- OccÄ«sus est Ä ThÄbÄnÄ«s.Nepos, Lysander 3.4."He was killed by the Thebans."
- (DÄ«xit eÅs) locum facile inventÅ«rÅs (esse).Nepos, Hannibal 12.3."He said that they were easily going to find the place / He said that they would find the place easily."
French
There are two basic participles:- Present active participle: formed by dropping the -ons of the nous form of the present tense of a verb (except with être and avoir) and then adding ant: marchant "walking", étant "being", ayant "having".
- Past participle: formation varies according to verb group: vendu "sold", mis "placed", marché "walked", été "been", and fait "done". The sense of the past participle is passive as an adjective and in most verbal constructions with être, but active in verbal constructions with avoir, in reflexive constructions, and with some intransitive verbs.Maurice Grevisse, Le Bon Usage, 10th edition, § 776.
- Present perfect participle: ayant appelé "having called", étant mort "being dead"
- Passive perfect participle: étant vendu "being sold, having been sold"
- Present participles are used as qualifiers as in "un insecte volant" (a flying insect) and in some other contexts. They are never used to form tenses. The present participle is used in subordinate clauses, usually with en: "Je marche, en parlant".
- Past participles are used as qualifiers for nouns: "la table cassée" (the broken table); to form compound tenses such as the perfect "Vous avez dit" (you have said) and to form the passive voice: "il a été tué" (he/it has been killed).
Spanish
In Spanish, the so-called present or active participle (participio activo or participio de presente) of a verb is traditionally formed with one of the suffixes -ante, -ente or -iente, but modern grammar does not consider it a true participle, as such forms usually have the meaning of simple adjectives or nouns: e.g. amante "loving" or "lover", viviente "living" or "live".Another participle form is known as the gerundio, which ends in an (unchanging) suffix -ando or -iendo. The gerundio is used in combination with the verb estar ("to be") to make continuous tenses: for example, estar haciendo means "to be doing" (haciendo being the gerundio of hacer, "to do"), and there are related constructions such as seguir haciendo meaning "to keep doing" (seguir being "to continue"). Another use is in phrases such as vino corriendo ("he/she came running") and lo vi corriendo ("I saw him running").The past participle (participio pasado or participio pasivo) is regularly formed with one of the suffixes -ado or -ido (-ado for verbs ending in "-ar" and -ido for verbs ending in "-er" or "-ir"; but some verbs have an irregular form ending in -to (e.g. escrito, visto, puesto), or -cho (e.g. dicho, hecho).WEB, Spanish Perfect Tenses,weblink Enforex, The past participle is used generally as an adjective referring to a finished action, in which case its ending changes according to gender and number. At other times is used to form compound tenses: the present perfect, past perfect (sometimes referred to as the pluscuamperfecto), and the future perfect, in which case it is indeclinable. Some examples:As an adjective (note how "escritas" agrees in gender with the noun, "las cartas"):- las cartas escritas "the written letters"
- Ha escrito una carta. "She (he, it) has written a letter."
- HabÃa escrito una carta. "She (he, it) had written a letter."
- Habrá escrito una carta. "She (he, it) will have written a letter."
Hellenic languages
Ancient Greek
The Ancient Greek participle shares in the properties of adjectives and verbs. Like an adjective, it changes form for gender, case, and number. Like a verb, it has tense and voice, is modified by adverbs, and can take verb arguments, including an object.{{Smyth|2039}} Participles are quite numerous in Ancient Greek: a non-defective verb has as many as ten participles.There is a form of the participle for every combination of aspect (present, aorist, perfect, future) and voice (active, middle, passive). All participles are based on their finite forms. Here are the masculine nominative singular forms for a thematic and an athematic verb:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"! lÅ«ÌÅ"I release" !! active !! middle !! passivelÅ«ÌÅn > | lūómenos |
lÅ«ÌsÄs > | lÅ«sámenos > | lutheÃs |
lÅ«ÌsÅn > | lÅ«sómenos > | luthÄsómenos |
leluká¹s> | leluménos |
titheÃs > | tithémenos |
theÃs > | thémenos > | tetheÃs |
thá¸sÅn > | thÄsómenos > | tethÄsómenos |
tethÄká¹s > | tetheiménos |
Indo-Aryan languages
Hindi and Urdu
There are two types of participles in Hindi and Urdu (called together Hindustani), aspectual participles which mark the aspect and non-aspectual participles which do not mark verbal aspect. The table below mentions the different participles present in Hindustani, ɸ denotes the verb root. The aspectual participles can take a few other copulas after them besides the verb honÄ "to be". Those copular verbs are rêhna "to stay", ÄnÄ "to come", jÄnÄ "to go".BOOK, Shapiro, Michael C., A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1989, 81-208-0475-9, New Delhi, 216â246, {||{| class="wikitable"sits, used to sit |
sat |
(in the process of) sitting |
sitting |
(in the process of) sitting |
ɸ-tÄ-ɸ-tÄ | बà¥à¤ तà¥-बà¥à¤ तॠبÛÙ¹Ú¾ØªÛ - بÛÙ¹Ú¾ØªÛ baiá¹htÄ-baiá¹htÄ|while (in the process of) sitting |
ɸ-Ä-ɸ-Ä | बà¥à¤ à¥-बà¥à¤ ॠبÛÙ¹Ú¾Û- بÛÙ¹Ú¾Û baiá¹hÄ-baiá¹hÄ|while (already) sitting |
to sit |
(prospective) going to sit(agentive) a person who sits [sit-er] |
ɸ-nÄ | बà¥à¤ नॠبÛÙ¹Ú¾ÙÛ baiá¹hnÄ|to sit, sitting |
ɸ-kÄ, ɸ-kar | बà¥à¤ à¤à¥, बà¥à¤ à¤à¤° بÛÙ¹Ú¾Ú©Û Ø Ø¨Ûٹھکر baiá¹hkÄ, baiá¹hkar|having done sitting, by sitting |
1 The periphrasatic adjectival marker huÄ, huÄ, huÄ«, and huÄ«mÌ¥ are shortened to wÄ, wÄ, wÄ«, and wÄ«mÌ¥ respectively in colloquial speech. |
2 The progressive aspect marking participles rahÄ, rahÄ, rahÄ«, and rahÄ«mÌ¥ are shortened to rÄ, rÄ, rÄ«, and rÄ«mÌ¥ respectively in colloquial speech. |
Sanskrit
Much like Ancient Greek, Sanskrit has a wide array of participles.Celtic languages
Cornish
In Cornish, an equivalent present participle construction to English is formed by using ow (owth before vowels) with a verbal noun, e.g. Yma an den ow hwerthin ("The man is laughing"), and den ow hwerthin ("a laughing man"). Like Breton but unlike Welsh, Cornish also has verbal adjectives which are used similarly to English past participles, e.g. dehen molys ("clotted cream"), from the verbal noun mola "to clot".Welsh
In Welsh, the effect of a participle in the active voice is constructed by yn followed by the verb-noun (for the present participle) and wedi followed by the verb-noun (for the past participle). There is no mutation in either case. In the passive voice, participles are usually replaced by a compound phrase such as wedi cael ei/eu ("having got his/her/their ...ing") in modern Welsh and by the impersonal form in literary Welsh.Slavic languages
Polish
The Polish word for participle is imiesÅów (pl.: imiesÅowy). There are four types of imiesÅowy in two classes:Adjectival participle (imiesÅów przymiotnikowy):- active adjectival participle (imiesÅów przymiotnikowy czynny): robiÄ cy â "doing", "one who does"
- passive adjectival participle (imiesÅów przymiotnikowy bierny): robiony â "being done" (can only be formed off transitive verbs)
- present adverbial participle (imiesÅów przysÅówkowy wspóÅczesny): robiÄ c â "doing", "while doing"
- perfect adverbial participle (imiesÅów przysÅówkowy uprzedni): zrobiwszy â "having done" (formed in virtually all cases off verbs in their perfective forms, here denoted by the prefix z-)
- I found them hiding in the closet.
- ZnalazÅem ich, chowajÄ c siÄ w szafie. â chowajÄ c is a present adverbial participle agreeing grammatically with the subject ("I")
- ZnalazÅem ich chowajÄ cych siÄ w szafie. â chowajÄ cych is an active adjectival participle agreeing grammatically with the object ("them")
Russian
Verb: ÑлÑÑаÑÑ [Ësɫɨ.ÊÉtʲ] (to hear, imperfective aspect)- Present active: ÑлÑÑаÑий [Ësɫɨ.ÊÉ.ÉËɪj] "hearing", "who hears"
- Present passive: ÑлÑÑимÑй [Ësɫɨ.ÊɨÌ.mɨÌj] "being heard", "that is heard", "audible"
- Past active: ÑлÑÑавÑий [Ësɫɨ.ÊÉf.ÊɨÌj] "who heard", "who was hearing"
- Past passive: ÑлÑÑаннÑй [Ësɫɨ.ÊÉn.nɨÌj] "that was heard", "that was being heard"
- Adverbial present active: ÑлÑÑа [Ësɫɨ.ÊÉ] "(while) hearing"
- Adverbial past active: ÑлÑÑав [Ësɫɨ.ÊÉf] "(while) hearing" (used mostly in the negative in the modern language, e.g. не ÑлÑÑав "without ever hearing")
- Past active: ÑÑлÑÑавÑий [ÊËsɫɨ.ÊÉf.ÊɨÌj] "who has heard"
- Past passive: ÑÑлÑÑаннÑй [ÊËsɫɨ.ÊÉn.nɨÌj] "that has been heard", "who has been heard"
- Adverbial past active: ÑÑлÑÑав [ÊËsɫɨ.ÊÉf] "having heard", "after hearing"
Bulgarian
Participles are adjectives formed from verbs. There are various kinds:Verb: пÑÐ°Ð²Ñ [pravja] (to do, imperfective aspect):- Present active: пÑÐ°Ð²ÐµÑ [praveÅ¡t]
- Past active aorist: пÑавил [pravil]
- Past active imperfect: пÑавел [pravel] (only used in verbal constructions)
- Past passive: пÑавен [praven]
- Adverbial present active: пÑавейки [pravejki]
- Past active aorist: напÑавил [napravil]
- Past active imperfect: напÑавел [napravel] (only used in verbal constructions)
- Past passive: напÑавен [napraven]
Macedonian
Macedonian has completely lost or transformed the participles of Common Slavic, unlike the other Slavic languages. The following points may be noted:Macedonian Grammar, Victor Friedman- present active participle: this has transformed into a verbal adverb;
- present passive participle: there are some isolated cases or remnants of the present passive participle, such as the word лаком [lakom] (greedy);
- past active participle: there is only one remnant of the past active participle, which is the word Ð±Ð¸Ð²Ñ [bivÅ¡] (former). However, this word is often replaced with the word поÑанеÑен [poraneÅ¡en] (former);
- past passive participle: this has been transformed into a verbal adjective (it behaves like a normal adjective);
- resultative participle: this has transformed into a verbal l-form (глаголÑка л-ÑоÑма). It is not a participle since it does not function attributively.
Baltic languages
Lithuanian
Among Indo-European languages, the Lithuanian language is unique for having fourteen different participial forms of the verb, which can be grouped into five when accounting for inflection by tense. Some of these are also inflected by gender and case. For example, the verb eiti ("to go, to walk") has the active participle forms einÄ s/einantis ("going, walking", present tense), ÄjÄs (past tense), eisiÄ s (future tense), eidavÄs (past frequentative tense), the passive participle forms einamas ("being walked", present tense), eitas ("walked" past tense), eisimas (future tense), the adverbial participles einant ("while [he, different subject] is walking" present tense), Äjus (past tense), eisiant (future tense), eidavus (past frequentative tense), the semi-participle eidamas ("while [he, the same subject] is going, walking") and the participle of necessity eitinas ("what needs to be walked"). The active and passive participles and the semi-participles are inflected by gender, and the active, passive and necessity participles are inflected by case.Semitic languages
Arabic
The Arabic verb has two participles: an active participle (ʾism al-fÄÊ¿il اس٠اÙÙاعÙ) and a passive participle (ʾism al-mafÊ¿Å«l اس٠اÙÙ ÙعÙÙ), and the form of the participle is predictable by inspection of the dictionary form of the verb. These participles are inflected for gender, number and case, but not person. Arabic participles are employed syntactically in a variety of ways: as nouns, as adjectives or even as verbs. Their uses vary across varieties of Arabic. In general the active participle describes a property of the syntactic subject of the verb from which it derives, whilst the passive participles describes the object. For example, from the verb Ùتب kataba, the active participle is kÄtib Ùاتب and the passive participle is maktÅ«b Ù ÙتÙب. Roughly these translate to "writing" and "written" respectively. However, they have different, derived lexical uses. Ùاتب kÄtib is further lexicalized as "writer", "author" and Ù ÙتÙب maktÅ«b as "letter".In Classical Arabic, the participles do not participate in verbal constructions with auxiliaries the same way as their English counterparts and rarely take on a verbal meaning in a sentence (a notable exception being participles derived from motion verbs as well as participles in Qur'anic Arabic). In certain dialects of Arabic, however, it is much more common for the participles, especially the active participle, to have verbal force in the sentence. For example, in dialects of the Levant, the active participle is a structure that describes the state of the syntactic subject after the action of the verb from which it derives has taken place. ʼÄkil, the active participle of ʼakala ("to eat"), describes one's state after having eaten something. Therefore, it can be used in analogous way to the English present perfect (for example, ʼAnÄ Ê¼Äkil اÙا Ø¢ÙÙ meaning "I have eaten", "I have just eaten" or "I have already eaten"). Other verbs, such as rÄḥa Ø±Ø§Ø ("to go") give a participle (rÄyiḥ راÙØ), which has a progressive ("is goingâ¦") meaning. The exact tense or continuity of the participles is, therefore, determined by the nature of the specific verb (especially its lexical aspect and its transitivity) and the syntactic/semantic context of the utterance. What ties them all together is that they describe the subject of the verb from which they derive. The passive participles in certain dialects can be used as a sort of passive voice, but more often than not, they are used in their various lexicalized senses as adjectives or nouns.Hebrew
Like Arabic, Hebrew has two types of participles (××× ×× × bênônî): an active participle (××× ×× × ×¤××¢× bênônî pô'Äl) and a passive participle (××× ×× × ×¤×¢×× bênônî pÄ'ûl). These participles are inflected for gender and number. The active participle takes a variety of syntactic roles, such as a verb in present tense, a noun, and an adjective.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}Hebrew has a syntactic construction of the verb "to be" (×Ö¸×Ö¸×) hayá in the past tense, and the active participle that cognates to the past progressive tense in English. For example, the word ×¢×××ª× avádti means "I worked", and ××××ª× ×¢××× hayÃti ovéd means "I was working". Another use of this syntactic structure is equivalent to "used to" in English. For example, ×××× ××××××ª× ××× ×ר ××רצ×ת ××ר×ת davÃd b'yaldutó hayá gar b'arcót habrÃt (David in his childhood used to live in the United States).{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}Finno-Ugric languages
Finnish
Finnish uses six participles (partisiippi) to convey different meanings. Below is a table displaying the declension of the participles of the verb tappaa (to kill).{| border="1" class="wikitable"|+ Finnish Participles!! Active! Passive| tapettava |
| tappamaton |
| unkillable (possibility) or not killed (undoneness) |
| tappamattomuus |
| unkillability (possibility) or lack of killing (undoneness) |
Hungarian
Hungarian uses adjectival and adverbial participles.Adjectival participles (melléknévi igenév) can be one of these three types:- Present (active): olvas (read) â olvasó (reading), él (live) â élÅ (living)
- Past (usually passive): zár (close) â zárt (closed)
- Future (has a modal meaning): olvas (read) â olvasandó (to be read), fizet (pay) â fizetendÅ (to be paid)
- Imperfect: siet (hurry) â sietve (hurrying, i.e. in a hurrying manner)
- Perfect: bemegy (go in) â bemenvén (having gone in) (this form is rarely used in modern Hungarian)
Turkic languages
Turkish
Participles are called sıfat-fiil (lit. adjective-verb) or ortaç in Turkish.Ergin 309Turkish participles consist of a verb stem and a suffix. Some participles may be conjugated, but some may not. Participles always precede the noun they are defining, unlike in English.Participle suffixes, like many other suffixes in Turkish, change according to the vowel harmony and sandhi.There are eight types of participle suffixes; -en, -esi, -mez, -ar, -di(k/Äi) -ecek and -miÅ Ergin 310 Dâsitân-ı Sultân Mahmûd Mesnevisi'nde Fiiller, Süleyman Demirel Ãniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi {{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Osman Yıldız, May 2007 (PDF)EskimoâAleut languages
Sirenik
Sirenik language, an extinct EskimoâAleut language, had separate sets of adverbial participles and adjectival participles. Unlike in English, adverbial participles were conjugated to reflect the person and number of their implicit subjects; hence, an adverbial participle could replace a clause in the English sentence "If I were a marksman, I would kill walruses" since the subject was implied by the conjugation.Constructed languages
Esperanto
Esperanto has six different participle conjugations; active and passive for past, present and future. The participles are formed as follows:{| class="wikitable"See also
- Attributive verb
- Gerund
- Grammar
- Hanging participle
- Nonfinite verb
- Transgressive (linguistics)
- Converb
Notes
{{Reflist|2}}References
- Participles from the American Heritage Book of English Usage (1996).
- Quirk, R; Greenbaum, S; Leech, G.; Svartvik, J. (1972). A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman.
External links
- List of English simple past and past participle verb forms from myenglishteacher.net
- Ernest De Witt Burton: Moods and Tenses of New Testament Greek. The adverbial participle
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