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Micro combined heat and power#Fuel cells
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{{Short description|Small-scale generation of heat and power}}{{technical|date=August 2015}}Micro combined heat and power, micro-CHP, μCHP or mCHP is an extension of the idea of cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building in the range of up to 50 kW.WEB,eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/27/oj, DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency, Article 2(39), eur-lex.europa.eu, en, 2012-10-25, 2017-08-11, Usual technologies for the production of heat and power in one common process are e.g. internal combustion engines, micro gas turbines, stirling engines or fuel cells.Local generation has the potential for a higher efficiency than traditional grid-level generators since it lacks the 8-10% energy losses from transporting electricity over long distances. It also lacks the 10–15% energy losses from heat transport in heating networks due to the difference between the thermal energy carrier (hot water) and the colder external environment.The most common systems use natural gas as their primary energy source and emit carbon dioxide; nevertheless the effective efficiency of CHP heat production is much higher than of a condensing boiler, and thus reducing emissions and fuel costs.

Overview

A micro-CHP system usually contains a small heat engine as a prime mover used to rotate a generator which provides electric power, while simultaneously utilizing the waste heat from the prime mover for an individual building’s space heating and the provision of hot domestic water.BOOK,www.springer.com/us/book/9783540255826, Micro Cogeneration - Towards Decentralized Energy Systems {{!, Martin Pehnt {{!}} Springer|year=2006|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/3-540-30821-0|isbn=9783540255826|language=en}} With fuel cells there is no rotating machinery, but the fuel cell’s stack and where applicable also the reformer will provide useful heat. The stack does generate DC power which is converted by DC/AC inverter into mains voltage. Micro-CHP is defined by the EU as less than 50 kW electrical power output, however, others have more restrictive definitions, all the way down to 20% net power degradation.

Thermoelectrics

Thermoelectric generators operating on the Seebeck Effect show promise due to their total absence of moving parts. Efficiency, however, is the major concern as most thermoelectric devices fail to achieve 5% efficiency even with high temperature differences.

Solar micro-CHP

CPVT

This can be achieved by Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector, another option is Concentrated photovoltaics and thermal (CPVT), also sometimes called combined heat and power solar (CHAPS), is a cogeneration technology used in concentrated photovoltaics that produce both electricity and heat in the same module. The heat may be employed in district heating, water heating and air conditioning, desalination or process heat.CPVT systems are currently in production in Europe,Renewable Energy World-Researchers explore hybrid concentrated solar energy system {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220090012www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2008/11/researchers-explore-hybrid-concentrated-solar-energy-system-53981 |date=December 20, 2014 }} with Zenith Solar developing CPVT systems with a claimed efficiency of 72%.WEB,www.zenithsolar.com/content.aspx?id=290, Zenith Solar Projects – Yavne, zenithsolar.com, 2011, May 14, 2011, dead,www.zenithsolar.com/content.aspx?id=290," title="web.archive.org/web/20110415024732www.zenithsolar.com/content.aspx?id=290,">web.archive.org/web/20110415024732www.zenithsolar.com/content.aspx?id=290, April 15, 2011, Sopogy produces a micro concentrated solar power (microCSP) system based on parabolic trough which can be installed above building or homes, the heat can be used for water heating or solar air conditioning, a steam turbine can also be installed to produce electricity.

CHP+PV

The recent development of small scale CHP systems has provided the opportunity for in-house power backup of residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays.JOURNAL, J. M. Pearce, Expanding Photovoltaic Penetration with Residential Distributed Generation from Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic + Combined Heat and Power Systems, Energy, 34, 11, 1947–1954, 10.1016/j.energy.2009.08.012, 1974/5307, 2009, 10.1.1.593.8182, 109780285, {{Open access}} The results of a recent study show that a PV+CHP hybrid system not only has the potential to radically reduce energy waste in the status quo electrical and heating systems, but it also enables the share of solar PV to be expanded by about a factor of five. In some regions, in order to reduce waste from excess heat, an absorption chiller has been proposed to utilize the CHP-produced thermal energy for cooling of PV-CHP system.JOURNAL, A. Nosrat, J. M. Pearce, Dispatch Strategy and Model for Hybrid Photovoltaic and Combined Heating, Cooling, and Power Systems, Applied Energy, 88, 9, 2011, 3270–3276, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.02.044, 1974/6439, 10.1.1.593.5625, 110724813, {{Open access}} These trigen+PV systems have the potential to save even more energy.

Net metering

To date, micro-CHP systems achieve much of their savings, and thus attractiveness to consumers, by the value of electrical energy which is replaced by the autoproduced electricity. A “generate-and-resell” or net metering model supports this, as home-generated power exceeding the instantaneous in-home needs is sold back to the electrical utility. This system is efficient because the energy used is distributed and used instantaneously over the electrical grid. The main losses are in the transmission from the source to the consumer, which will typically be less than the losses incurred by storing energy locally or generating power at less than the peak efficiency of the micro-CHP system. So, from a purely technical standpoint dynamic demand management and net-metering are very efficient.Another advantage of net-metering is that it is fairly easy to configure. The user’s electrical meter can easily record electrical energy exiting as well as entering the home or business. For a grid with relatively few micro-CHP users, no design changes to the electrical grid need be made. Additionally, in the United States, federal and now many state regulations require utility operators to compensate anyone adding power to the grid. From the standpoint of the grid operator, these points present operational and technical as well as administrative burdens. As a consequence, most grid operators compensate non-utility power-contributors at less than or equal to the rate they charge their customers. While this compensation scheme may seem almost fair at first glance, it only represents the consumer’s cost-savings of not purchasing utility power versus the true cost of generation and operation to the micro-CHP operator. Thus from the standpoint of micro-CHP operators, net-metering is not ideal.While net-metering is a very efficient mechanism for using excess energy generated by a micro-CHP system, it does have disadvantages: while the main generating source on the electrical grid is a large commercial generator, net-metering generators “spill” power to the smart grid in a haphazard and unpredictable fashion. However, the effect is negligible if there are only a small percentage of customers generating electricity and each of them generates a relatively small amount of electricity. When turning on an oven or space heater, about the same amount of electricity is drawn from the grid as a home generator puts out. If the percentage of homes with generating systems becomes large, then the effect on the grid may become significant. Coordination among the generating systems in homes and the rest of the grid may be necessary for reliable operation and to prevent damage to the grid.

Market status

Japan

The largest deployment of micro-CHP is in Japan in 2009 with over 90,000 units in place, with the vast majority being of Honda’sWEB,world.honda.com/news/2007/c070717Compact-Household-Cogeneration-Unit/, Honda Worldwide | July 17, 2007 “Honda’s Compact Household Cogeneration Unit Achieves Cumulative Sales of 50,000 units in Japan”, World.honda.com, 2012-06-12, dead,world.honda.com/news/2007/c070717Compact-Household-Cogeneration-Unit/," title="web.archive.org/web/20120615025748world.honda.com/news/2007/c070717Compact-Household-Cogeneration-Unit/,">web.archive.org/web/20120615025748world.honda.com/news/2007/c070717Compact-Household-Cogeneration-Unit/, June 15, 2012, “ECO-WILL” type.www.kgu.or.kr/download.php?tb=bbs_017&fn=wgcFinal00305.pdf&rn=wgcFinal00305.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20141106223104www.kgu.or.kr/download.php?tb=bbs_017&fn=wgcFinal00305.pdf&rn=wgcFinal00305.pdf">Micro CHP in Japan Six Japanese energy companies launched the 300 W–1 kW PEMFC/SOFC ENE FARM{{in lang|en}} Japan 2005-2008 mchp {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}FCgen-1030V3 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707205926www.ballard.com/files/pdf/Spec_Sheets/FCgen-1030V3_docmetrics.pdf |date=July 7, 2011 }} product in 2009, with 3,000 installed units in 2008, a production target of 150,000 units for 2009–2010 and a target of 2,500,000 units in 2030.ENE FARM residential fuel cells launched {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616191156www.tokyo-gas.co.jp/tgminutes/64.pdf |date=June 16, 2012 }} 20,000 units were sold in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project making an estimated total of 50,000 PEMFC and up to 5,000 SOFC installations.The IEA CHP and DHC Collaborative {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210659www.iea.org/publications/insights/insightpublications/IEAJapanScorecardMASTERFINALdraft_060913_AF.pdf |date=March 3, 2016 }} For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place. The ENE FARM project will pass 100.000 systems in 2014, 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG.

ECOWILL

Sold by various gas companies and as of 2013, installed in a total of 131,000 homes. Manufactured by Honda using their single cylinder EXlink engine capable of burning natural gas or propane. Each unit produces 1 kW of electricity and 2.8 kW of hot water.WEB,world.honda.com/power/cogenerator/, Honda Global | Honda Motor Co., Ltd., 2015-03-29, live,world.honda.com/power/cogenerator/," title="web.archive.org/web/20161121004839world.honda.com/power/cogenerator/,">web.archive.org/web/20161121004839world.honda.com/power/cogenerator/, 2016-11-21,

PEMFC

SOFC

South Korea

In South Korea, subsidies will start at 80 percent of the cost of a domestic fuel cell.South Korea unveils 80 per cent subsidy for domestic fuel cells {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317123157www.businessgreen.com/business-green/news/2248391/south-korea-unveils-80-per-cent |date=March 17, 2010 }} The Renewable Portfolio Standard program with renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022.R&D status and prospects on fuel cells in Korea {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205044729www.fuelcellseminar.com/media/5505/kim_10_19_2010.pdf |date=December 5, 2013 }} Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than a Feed-in tariff.Renewable Energy Policy Mechanisms by Paul Gipe {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510072741www.wind-works.org/FeedLaws/RenewableEnergyPolicyMechanismsbyPaulGipe.pdf |date=May 10, 2012 }}(1.3MB)Lauber, V. (2004). “REFIT and RPS: Options for a harmonized Community framework,” Energy Policy, Vol. 32, Issue 12, pp.1405–1414.Lauber, V. (2008). “Certificate Trading – Part of the Solution or Part of the Problem?“Ljubljana Conference on the Future of GHG Emissions Trading in the EU, March 2008. Salzburg, Austria: University of Salzburg. Retrieved 16 March 2009 at: www.uni-salzburg.at/politikwissenschaft/lauber
Around 350 residential mCHP units were installed in 2012.The fuel cell industry review 2012 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701231144www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1713685/fct_review_2012.pdf |date=July 1, 2016 }}

Europe

The European public–private partnership Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking Seventh Framework Programme project ene.field aims to deploy by 20175th stakeholders general assembly of the FCH JU {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110030750www.fch-ju.eu/sites/default/files/documents/sga2012/Presentation%20Fiona%20Riddoch-%20Session%20II.pdf |date=November 10, 2013 }} up 1,000 residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (micro-CHP) installations in 12 EU member states.

Sweden

Powercell Sweden is a fuel cell company that develop environmentally friendly electric generators with the unique fuel cell and reformer technology that is suitable for both existing and future fuel.

Germany

In Germany, ca 50 MW of mCHP up to 50 kW units have been installed in 2015.BAFA: Official statistics on CHP units commissioned per year, downloaded 2016-03-12{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The German government is offering large CHP incentives, including a market premium on electricity generated by CHP and an investment bonus for micro-CHP units. The German testing project Callux has 500 mCHP installations per nov 2014.Enfarm enefield eneware {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215204028www.hyer.eu/2014/enfarm-enefield-eneware |date=February 15, 2016 }} North Rhine-Westphalia launched a 250 million subsidy program for up to 50 kW lasting until 2017.North Rhine-Westphalia government launches capital subsidy for micro-CHP {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109085658www.hyer.eu/members/germany/nordrhein-westfalen/nordrhein-westfalen-news/north-rhine-westphalia-government-to-subsidise-fuel-cell-m-chp |date=November 9, 2013 }}

PEMFC

SOFC

UK

It is estimated that about 1,000 micro-CHP systems were in operation in the UK as of 2002. These are primarily Whispergen using Stirling engines, and Senertec Dachs reciprocating engines. The market is supported by the government through regulatory work, and some government research money expended through the Energy Saving Trust and Carbon Trust, which are public bodies supporting energy efficiency in the UK.CHP–The microgeneration boom? {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106122855www.chpa.co.uk/events/2006/national_conference/presentations/1400%20Ian%20Stares.pdf |date=January 6, 2009 }} Effective as of 7 April 2005, the UK government cut the VAT from 17.5% to 5% for micro-CHP systems, in order to support demand for this emerging technology at the expense of existing, less environmentally friendly technology. Of the 24 million households in the UK, as many as 14 to 18 million are thought to be suitable for micro-CHP units.The role of micro CHP in a smart energy world = March 2013 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304072549www.ecuity.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/The-role-of-micro-CHP-in-a-smart-energy-world.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }}

PEMFC

SOFC

Denmark

The Danish mCHP project 2007 to 2014 with 30 units is on the island of Lolland and in the western town Varde.Demonstration of micro CHP based on Danish fuel cells {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106133352www.fuelcellseminar.com/assets/pdf/2008/tuesday/DEM23-2_AHPederson.ppt.pdf |date=November 6, 2014 }} Denmark is currently part of the Ene.field project.

The Netherlands

The micro-CHP subsidy was ended in 2012. To test the effects of mCHP on a smart grid, 45 natural gas SOFC units (each 1,5 kWh) from Republiq Power (Ceramic Fuel Cells) will be placed on Ameland in 2013 to function as a virtual power plant.WEB,www.waddenfonds.nl/fileadmin/waddenfonds/inhd_wadfonds/Projecten/pdf/bijl_PB_WF_29okt2013.pdf, Methaanbrandstoffen op Ameland, nl, dead,www.waddenfonds.nl/fileadmin/waddenfonds/inhd_wadfonds/Projecten/pdf/bijl_PB_WF_29okt2013.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20131101212845www.waddenfonds.nl/fileadmin/waddenfonds/inhd_wadfonds/Projecten/pdf/bijl_PB_WF_29okt2013.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20131101212845www.waddenfonds.nl/fileadmin/waddenfonds/inhd_wadfonds/Projecten/pdf/bijl_PB_WF_29okt2013.pdf, 2013-11-01,

United States

{{update section|date=July 2019}}The federal government is{{when|date=July 2019}} offering a 10% tax credit for smaller CHP and micro-CHP commercial applications.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}In 2007, the United States company “Climate Energy” of Massachusetts introduced the “Freewatt,ANnalysis of data collected for the Freewatt microCHP system in Syracuse, NY {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402133610www.cdhenergy.com/presentations/Freewatt%20Report%20-%20October2011.pdf |date=April 2, 2015 }} a micro-CHP system based on a Honda MCHP engine bundled with a gas furnace (for warm air systems) or boiler (for hydronic or forced hot water heating systems). The Freewatt is no longer commercially available (since at least 2014). Through testing it was found to operate at 23.4% efficiency for electrical and 51% efficiency for waste heat recovery.Taie, Z., Hagen, C. (2016). ARPA-e Final Scientific/Technical Report - Home Generator Benchmarking Program. Oregon State University. Bend, Oregon.JOURNAL, Taie, Zachary, West, Brian, Szybist, James, Edwards, Dean, Thomas, John, Huff, Shean, Vishwanathan, Gokul, Hagen, Christopher, 2018-06-15, Detailed thermodynamic investigation of an ICE-driven, natural gas-fueled, 1 kWe micro-CHP generator, Energy Conversion and Management, 166, 663–673, 10.1016/j.enconman.2018.04.077, 1436052, 102973318, 0196-8904, free,www.osti.gov/biblio/1436052, Marathon Engine Systems, a Wisconsin company, produces a variable electrical and thermal output micro-CHP system called the ecopower with an electrical output of 2.2-4.7 kWe. The ecopower was independently measured to operate at 24.4% and 70.1% electrical and waste heat recovery efficiency, respectively.JOURNAL, Taie, Zachary, Hagen, Christopher, 2019-01-15, Experimental thermodynamic first and second law analysis of a variable output 1–4.5 kWe, ICE-driven, natural-gas fueled micro-CHP generator, Energy Conversion and Management, 180, 292–301, 10.1016/j.enconman.2018.10.075, 102511621, 0196-8904, free,

Canada

{{update section|date=July 2019}} Through a pilot program scheduled for mid-2009 in the Canadian province of Ontario, the Freewatt system is being offered by home builder Eden OakWEB,edenoak.com/, New Homes & Spectacular Communities in Southern Ontario, with support from ECR International,WEB,www.ecrinternational.com, ECR International | A Family of Heating & Cooling Brands, Enbridge Gas Distribution and National Grid.WEB,www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2008/09/20/huge_savings_claimed_by_new_system.html, Huge savings claimed by new system, Toronto Star, 20 September 2008, 2015-03-29, live,www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2008/09/20/huge_savings_claimed_by_new_system.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150402143917www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2008/09/20/huge_savings_claimed_by_new_system.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150402143917www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2008/09/20/huge_savings_claimed_by_new_system.html, 2015-04-02,

Research

Testing is underway in Ameland, the Netherlands for a three-year field testing until 2010 of HCNG where 20% hydrogen is added to the local CNG distribution net, the appliances involved are kitchen stoves, condensing boilers, and micro-CHP boilers.Micro-CHP {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227103548corporateuk.eneco.nl/outlook_and_strategy/innovation/Pages/ThenewHReboiler.aspx |date=February 27, 2012 }}translate.google.com/translate?u=http://www.waterstofvereniging.nl/nieuws/opinie-ameland.html&sl=nl&tl=en&hl=en&ie=UTF-8" title="archive.today/20120717053401translate.google.com/translate?u=http://www.waterstofvereniging.nl/nieuws/opinie-ameland.html&sl=nl&tl=en&hl=en&ie=UTF-8">Ameland Field testingMicro-CHP Accelerator, a field trial performed between 2005 and 2008, studied the performance of 87 Stirling engine and internal combustion engine devices in residential houses in the UK. This study found that the devices resulted in average carbon savings of 9% for houses with heat demand over 54 GJ/year.REPORT, Carbon Trust, 2011, Micro-CHP Accelerator,www.carbontrust.com/media/77260/ctc788_micro-chp_accelerator.pdf, An ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) paper fully describes the performance and operatingexperience with two residential sized Combined Heat and Power units which were in operation from 1979through 1995.Frederick R. Rosse: EXPERIENCE WITH EARLY DISTRIBUTED GENERATION SYSTEMS {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314013035proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=1580378 |date=March 14, 2016 }}, Proceedings of IJPC-2003 2003 International Joint Power Conference, paper IJPGC2003-40192Oregon State University, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Project Agency - Energy (ARPA-e), tested the state of the art micro-CHP systems in the United States. The results showed that the nominally 1 kWe state-of-the-art micro-CHP system operated at an electrical and total efficiency (LHV based) of 23.4 and 74.4%, respectively. The nominally 5 kWe state-of-the-art system operated at an electrical and total efficiency (LHV based) of 24.4 and 94.5%, respectively. The most popular 7 kWe home backup generator (not CHP) operated at an electrical efficiency (LHV based) of 21.5%. The price of the emergency backup generator was an order of magnitude lower than the 5 kWe generator, but the projected life span of the system was over 2 orders of magnitude lower. These results show the trade-off between efficiency, cost, and durability.The U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Project Agency - Energy (ARPA-e) has funded $25 million towards mCHP research in the GENerators for Small Electrical and Thermal Systems (GENSETS) program.WEB,arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=arpa-e-programs/gensets, GENSETS, ARPA-e, 11 August 2017, WEB,arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=news-item/department-energy-announces-18-new-projects-accelerate-technologies-efficient-residential, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY ANNOUNCES 18 NEW PROJECTS TO ACCELERATE TECHNOLOGIES FOR EFFICIENT RESIDENTIAL COMBINED HEAT AND POWER GENERATION AND BIOENERGY CROP DEVELOPMENT, ARPA-e, 11 August 2017, 12 project teams have been selected to develop a 1 kWe mCHP technology that can achieve 40% electrical efficiency, have a 10-year system life, and cost under $3000.

See also

{{colbegin}} {{colend}}

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

External links

{{Electricity generation}}{{Authority control}}

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