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{{short description|Priest in ancient Rome}}{{Priesthoods of ancient Rome}}A (plural flamines)WEB, Flamen {{!, Definition of Flamen by Merriam-Webster |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/flamen |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=6 May 2021}} was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of fifteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who served the important Roman gods Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus. The remaining twelve were the ("lesser priests"). Two of the served deities whose names are now unknown; among the others are deities about whom little is known other than the name. During the Imperial era, the cult of a deified emperor () also had a flamen.The fifteen Republican flamens were members of the Pontifical College, who administered state-sponsored religion. When the office of flamen was vacant, a could serve as a temporary replacement, although only the is known to have substituted for the , one of the .

Etymology

The etymology of remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable.Andrew Sihler New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford University Press 1995 p.198:’ That such cases are strictly speaking undecidable, so far from calming debate, has seemed to stimulate bickering in the scholarly literature.’ The term is traditionally connected with the Proto-Germanic verb *blōtanÄ… ("to sacrifice"; cf. Gothic blotan), by positing a Proto-Indo-European stem *bÊ°lehâ‚‚d-m(e)n- (or *bÊ°lehâ‚‚g-m(e)n-), which could have originally meant "sacrifice".BOOK, Hellquist, Elof, 1922, blota, Svensk Etymologisk Ordbok, runeberg.org,weblink BOOK, Kroonen, Guus, 2013, Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic, Brill, 978-90-04-18340-7, 70, en, BOOK, de Vaan, Michiel, 2018, Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages, Brill, 978-90-04-16797-1, en, However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlier flă-men, flăd-men or flăg-smen.Indo-European scholar G. Dumézil attempted to link the term to the Sanskrit word brahman.{{efn|"The Sanskrit brahman ... must derive, with reverse guna, from *bhelgh-men- or *bholgh-men-. The Latin flamen must derive from a neighboring form, *bhlagh-smen-, which, along with forms having the radical -el- or - ol-, presents the same shift." — DumézilBOOK, Dumézil, G., Georges Dumézil, 1940, Mitra-Varuna, Coltman, D., New York, NY, Zone Books, 1988, 26, }} Dumézil himself notes that the etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and the cognates have not been universally accepted by modern scholars.BOOK , {{efn|Dumézil was aware of the technical difficulties, but defended the weak link based on the broader grounds, that the nexus between {{nobr|bráhman / flamen}} was part of a pair of dyadic terms, the other being {{nobr|Skt. ráj- / Latin rÄ“g-,}} which were key roles in his hypothetical tripartite ideology underpinning Indo-Europeans' social organization. He claimed this comparative sociological framework strengthened the claimed cognate identities between the two pairs of terms.BOOK, Dumézil, G., Georges Dumézil, 1938, La préhistorire des flamens majeurs, reprinted in BOOK, Dumézil, G., Georges Dumézil, 1969, Idées romaines, 2nd, Gallimard, 155–166, esp. 158, BOOK, Dumézil, G., Georges Dumézil, 1968, Mythe et epopee, 1, Gallimard, 12–16, BOOK, Dumézil, G., Georges Dumézil, 1974, La religion romaine archaïque, Gallimard, 94–97, }}Andrew Sihler considers the claim that flamen might be a cognate of the Vedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothic blotan and via Proto-Indo-European *bÊ°lehâ‚‚d-m(e)n- is equally plausible.

History

At the time of the religious reformation by Augustus, the origins and functions of many of the long-neglected gods resident in Rome were confusing even to the Romans themselves. The obscurity of some of the deities assigned a flamen (for example Falacer, Palatua, Quirinus and Volturnus) suggests that the office dated back to Archaic Rome. Many scholars{{Who|date=May 2010}} assume that the existed at least from the time of the early Roman kings, prior to the establishment of the Republic. The Romans themselves credited the foundation of the priesthood to Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. According to Livy, Numa created the offices of the three and assigned them each a fine robe of office and a curule chair.Livy, , 1:20 The were circumscribed by many taboos.The flamen was a sacred position within Roman society; however, it could be used for political purposes. Certain people could be appointed as flamines to stop them from gaining power. For example, flamines were not allowed to ride a horse; therefore, this would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 32–33, By attaining such a position, the flamines were not permitted to run or hold a political office. There may have been flamines appointed simply to stop their progression in power and politics for reasons such as making enemies or simply jealousy.JOURNAL, Goldberg, Charles, Priests and Politicians: rex sacrorum and flamen Dialis in the Middle Republic, Winter 2015, Phoenix, 69, 3, 334–354, 10.7834/phoenix.69.3-4.0334, 163251922, In post-Antiquity usage, the designation "flamen" can apply, by extension, to priests in general.{{oed | flamen}}

Appointment

The flamen was a high position within Roman society and religion. Therefore, the selection process was difficult for those wishing to be chosen as flamen. In the case of the Flamen Dialis, they were appointed by the Pontifex Maximus. By the Pontifical College, three nominations were given to the , those whom Romans believed to be the most worthy of such position. The Pontifex Maximus did not just select a new Flamen Dialis, but "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he and his wife were fit to serve."BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 19–20, After the flamen and his wife were chosen, they then had to participate in a Roman tradition and ceremony known as captio. This ceremony was performed by an augur. It was the augur's job to make sure the gods would accept the new flamen. This was done by asking for the king of the gods, Jupiter's blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to the people. These ceremonies were known as comitia calata ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on the Capitoline Hill.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 22,

Privileges and disadvantages

Such a position in Roman society came with many privileges which in turn gave flamines a unique power. In law and criminal courts, the flamen wielded great power. When a person was deemed a criminal, they could appeal to a flamen, who had the power of pardoning criminals. There were also several other privileges that the flamen possessed. According to Cyril Bailey these include: exemption from the Patria Potestas (lit. power of the father) of his father; the wearing of the toga praetexta; and, the privileges of having a lictor of his own, of sitting on the curule chair, and having an ex officio place in the Senate.BOOK, Bailey, Cyril, Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome, Greenwood Press Publishers, 1972, 155, During the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390 BCE, the flamines were also given a special task. In an attempt to preserve Roman culture and history, the flamines and other religious orders such as the vestals were in charge of the sacred and religious items of Rome. Their objective was to take these treasures out of Rome so they would not be destroyed by the Gauls. Ralph Mathisen writes, "Their sacred cult should not be abandoned as long as a single person survived to observe it".BOOK, Mathisen, Ralph, Ancient Roman Civilization:History and Sources 753 BCE to 640 CE, Oxford University Press, 2019, 103, The flamines were also prohibited from many different actions and rituals. In the case of death, flamines were in charge of performing ritual sacrificing. However, other than that, contact with anything related to death was prohibited so that the flamen could partake in his religious duties. One extreme example was in the case of the flamen's wife (Latin, flaminica). They were not allowed to wear Calcei Morticini, "shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes." Since the animal was not part of a religious ritual or offered to the gods, these shoes would be seen as impure and disrespectful to the gods.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 34–35, Another disadvantage for the flamines was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans," because it was thought that these could interfere with the flamen's religious practices. Most of these were associated with unsanitariness or death. When these flamines would have to perform ritual sacrifices, it was almost impossible for the flamen to avoid contact with raw meat. However, Roman accounts do not include such events in their writings. Another thing flamines were forbidden from was binding. They could not be bound to anything because it could hinder and jeopardize their position as flamen. Therefore, the only bind they were tied to was their religious position and priesthood.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 36,

Marriage

A flamen had to be married. The flamen and his wife, the flaminica, were required to be patricians, and their parents had to be married through the ancient ceremony of confarreatio. This only applied to the flamen, because when they married his wife would become part of his family.{{contradictory inline|Flamen dialis}}JOURNAL, Goldberg, Charles, Priests and Politicians: rex sacrorum and flamen Dialis in the Middle Republic, Winter 2015, Phoenix, 69, 3, 334–354, 10.7834/phoenix.69.3-4.0334, 163251922, Through the process of confarreatio, the wife would pass from the manus (hand) of her father to the hand of her husband. This transferred the father's authority to her husband who would also become part of the religious cult.BOOK, DeLizuo, Meghan, A Place at the Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 20, It was necessary for the wife to be a virgin and previously unwed before marriage to a prospective flamen.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 21, The flamen and the wife served together. In the case of either's death, the surviving priest would then step down from their position. It was viewed as unlucky to be widowed.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 23, The flamen and flaminica could not separate or divorce. The only way to escape a marriage was through death, because, once they attained their positions, they became the property of the deity they were assigned to.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 32–33, Since they ruled together, they were also responsible for performing certain rituals together. During certain practices and rituals, the flamen and flaminica had to follow certain rules, such as leaving during purification rituals. Another ritual practiced by the priest and priestess pertained to their bed. Only the flamen and flaminica were allowed to sleep in the bed for ritual reasons, and under no circumstance could they spend the night away from the bed for any longer than three days. This was meant to create and ensure a strong relationship between the couple. The end of the bed was lined with "a thin layer of clay."BOOK, DeLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 31,

Garb

The official costume of a flamen, allegedly of great antiquity, was a hat called an apex and a heavy cloak called a laena. The laena was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, and was worn over the flamen's toga with a clasp to hold it around his throat.Maurus Servius Honoratus, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil iv.262; Cicero Brutus 14.56. The apex was a leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood on its top, like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base of the spindle.Servius Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil ii.683, viii.664, x.270. This was the traditional outfit during a ritual or sacrifice performed by the flamen. The flamen would not wear the laena on a daily occurrence. The flamen would also wear special shoes known as calcei.BOOK, DiLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 37, The flamen dress represented status. Only flamines were able to wear such a costume. It separated them from average citizens, politicians, and military figures. The responsibility for the creation of such a costume fell in the hands of the flaminica. The costume was handmade and a ritual blade known as secespikta was used in the process. The laena had to be made of wool, because wool was seen as pure and the most appropriate clothing to serve the gods.

Duties and obligations

The flamen and the flaminica had special roles that could not be done by the other. This position in Roman society was held to a specific standard with strict rules. The flamen could not perform the duties of the flaminica and she could not perform the duties of her husband. One example would be the honour killing and sacrifice of a ram, which was known as an offering to Jupiter and could only be done by the flaminica on market days.BOOK, DeLuzio, Meghan, A Place at The Altar, Princeton University Press, 2016, 43, The flamen couldn't perform his sacred duties without the flaminica. These positions of serving the gods were meant to be served together as husband and wife. This was a partnership where each person was dependent on the other. This is why, when one died, the other would have to step down, because they were not allowed to replace their partner or continue by themselves.

Flamines maiores

The three were required to be patricians:

• The oversaw the cult of Jupiter, the sky deity and ruler of the gods.
• The oversaw the cult of Mars, the god of war, leading public (wiktionary:rite|rites) on the days sacred to Mars. The sacred spears of Mars were ritually shaken by the Flamen Martialis when the legions were preparing for war.
• The oversaw the cult of Quirinus, who presided over organized Roman social life and was related to the peaceful aspect of Mars. The Flamen Quirinalis led public (wiktionary:rite|rites) on the days sacred to Quirinus.

A fourth was dedicated to Julius Caesar as a divinity () of the Roman state.Caesar's first flamen was Mark Antony. Thereafter, any deceased emperor could be made divus by vote of the senate and consent of his successor, and as a divus he would be served by a flamen. The flamen's role in relation to living emperors is uncertain; no living emperor is known to have received official divine worship;Caesar may have been granted an active flamen while living; the evidence is equivocal. see Imperial cult.A flamen could also be represented by a , or by a member without that title who could act as a substitute for the flamen (qui vice flaminis fungebatur).A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) (eds. William Smith, LLD, William Wayte, G. E. Marindin){{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.

Flamines minores {{anchor|flamines_minores_anchor}}

File:Ara pacis fregio lato ovest 2 A.JPG|thumb|upright=1.8|Flamines, distinguished by their pointed apices, as part of a procession on the Augustan Altar of Peace ]]The twelve could be plebeians.WEB, Seindal, René, flamines maiores,weblink 26 September 2016, Some of the deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, and only ten are known by name:

• , the flamen for Carmentis
• , for Ceres
• , for Falacer
• , for Flora
• , for Furrina
• , for Palatua
• , for Pomona
• , for Portunus
• , for Vulcan
• , for Volturnus

There were two other during the Republican period, but the names of the deities they cultivated are unknown. The flamines minores seem mostly connected to agriculture or local cults. The change to an urban way of life may explain why these deities lost their importance or fell into oblivion.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}The and are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for the ritual roles of the in connection with the cult of the god Quirinus and in connexion with the cult of the goddess Maia on the Kalends of May.Fest. p.321 L1 s.v. "persillum"; Macrob. Sat. I,12, 18 Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by the when he officiated at sacrifices to the goddesses Ceres and Tellus.The lost treatise by Quintus Fabius Pictor had contained the list, which was in turn recorded by Varro and through Servius later preserved by Augustine in the .Scholars disagree about some differences among and . Some maintain the difference was not substantial.Kurt Latte, 1960, pp. 36-37 Others, among them Dumézil,G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Consideratons preliminaires, XI believe that inherent differences lay in the right of the auspicia maiora and the ritual of inauguration that concerned only the Gaius 1, 112; Aulus Gellius 13, 15 quoting Messala ; Festus p. 274-275 L2. by birth as , that is, as children of parents married through the ritual of confarreatio, which was the form of marriage in turn required for . The also had the privilege of having , assistants who carried out day-to-day business.Fest. p. 354 L2; Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227 online. The difference would thus be akin to that between magistracies with and those with only.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

Notes

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Citations

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Sources

External links

• William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875: "Flamen"

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