{{short description|Ratio of width to length of the head of an organism}}{{distinguish|encephalization}}{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}(File:Cephalic index.svg|thumb|Cephalic index viewed from above the head)The cephalic index or cranial index is a number obtained by taking the maximum width (biparietal diameter or BPD, side to side) of the head of an organism, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or OFD, front to back). The index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century, but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats.

Historic use in anthropology

Early anthropology

(File:Cephalic index map of Europe by Bertil Lundman, 1993.jpg|thumb|Cephalic index map of Europe by Bertil Lundman)The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool to categorize human populations. It was used to describe an individual’s appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons.The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796â€“1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.(File:PSM V59 D404 Cephalic indexes of skull shapes.png|thumb|Cephalic indexes of skull shapes. Long skull (left) â€“ cephalic index 71.4; tall skull (center) â€“ cephalic index 81; broad skull (right) â€“ cephalic index 85)In the cephalic index model, human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index.File:Otmaa1917 1-1-.jpg|thumb|The children of the Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in June 1917, with loss of hair after fighting measles: among them, Tatiana had the skull with least cephalic index.]]

Indices

(File:PSM V50 D602 World cephalic index map.jpg|thumb|1896 world cephalic index map)Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:{| class=“wikitable”! Females !! Males !! Scientific term !! Meaning !! Alternative term

dolichocephalic >

mesaticephalic >

| mesocephalic; mesocranial

83 >

81.1 >

brachycephalic >

| brachycranial

Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest (behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella (between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.

Controversy

The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by Giuseppe Sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry.THESIS, Killgrove K, 2005, Bioarchaeology in the Roman World, Masters, UNC Chapel Hill,www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf,www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20120328162246www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20120328162246www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf, 28 March 2012, dead, Also, Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children’s cephalic index differed significantly from their parents’, implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.JOURNAL, Holloway RL, Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form?, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 23, 14622â€“3, November 2002, 12419854, 137467, 10.1073/pnas.242622399, 2002PNAS...9914622H, free, Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as Earnest Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas’s original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a “relatively high genetic component” of head shape.JOURNAL, Sparks CS, Jantz RL, A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 23, 14636â€“14639, November 2002, 12374854, 137471, 10.1073/pnas.222389599, free, 2002PNAS...9914636S, . See also the discussion in JOURNAL, Holloway RL, Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form?, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 23, 14622â€“14623, November 2002, 12419854, 137467, 10.1073/pnas.242622399, free, 2002PNAS...9914622H, Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have “adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage.“In 2003, anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas’s data and concluded that most of Boas’s original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas’s data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity.JOURNAL, Gravlee CC, Bernard HR, Leonard WR, Heredity, environment, and cranial form: A reanalysis of Boas’s immigrant data, American Anthropologist, March 2003, 105, 1, 125â€“138, 10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.125,www.gravlee.org/files/pdfs/gravlee03a.pdf, 2018-03-23, 2027.42/65137,www.gravlee.org/files/pdfs/gravlee03a.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20140730140427www.gravlee.org/files/pdfs/gravlee03a.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20140730140427www.gravlee.org/files/pdfs/gravlee03a.pdf, 30 July 2014, dead, free, In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks’s and Jantz’s analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas’s claims, and that Sparks’s and Jantz’s data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas’s method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas’ findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas’ results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate.JOURNAL, Sparks CS, Jantz RL, Changing Times, Changing Faces: Franz Boas’s Immigrant Study in Modern Perspective, American Anthropologist, 105, 2, 2003, 333â€“337, 10.1525/aa.2003.105.2.333, In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general “American environment” which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.JOURNAL, Jantz RL, Logan MH, Why does head form change in children of immigrants? A reappraisal, American Journal of Human Biology, 22, 5, 702â€“707, 2010, 20737620, 10.1002/ajhb.21070, 12686512, BOOK, Spradley MK, Weisensee K, Ancestry Estimation: The Importance, The History, and The Practice, Langley NR, Tersigni-Tarrant MT, Forensic Anthropology: A Comprehensive Introduction, Second, 2017, 165â€“166, CRC Press, 978-1-4987-3612-1,

Vertical cephalic index

The vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio.ENCYCLOPEDIA, length-height index, Merriam-Webster Medical,www.merriam-webster.com/medical/length-height%20index, JOURNAL, The Study of Vertical Cephalic Index (Length-Height Index) and Transverse Cephalic Index (Breadth-Height Index) of Andhra Region (India), 2013,www.researchgate.net/publication/314386981, 10.3126/ajms.v3i3.4650, Chandrashekhar, Chikatapu, Salve, Vishal Manoharrao, Asian Journal of Medical Sciences, 3, 3, 6â€“11, free, In the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic (low-skulled), orthocranic (medium high-skulled), or hypsicranic (high-skulled) cephalic index or cranial index.

Medicine

The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections.JOURNAL, Likus, Wirginia, Bajor, Grzegorz, Gruszczynska, Katrzyna, Baron, Jan, Markowski, Jaroslaw, Machnikowska-Sokolowska, Magdalena, Milka, Daniela, Lepich, Tomasz, February 4, 2014, Cephalic Index in the First Three Years of Life: Study of Children with Normal Brain Development Based on Computed Tomography, TheScientificWorldJournal, 2014, 502836, 10.1155/2014/502836, 24688395, 3933399, free, The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings.JOURNAL, Nam, Heesung, Han, Nami, Eom, Mi Ja, Kook, Minjung, Kim, Jeeyoung, 2021-04-30, Cephalic Index of Korean Children With Normal Brain Development During the First 7 Years of Life Based on Computed Tomography,www.e-arm.org/journal/view.php?number=4213, Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine, English, 45, 2, 141â€“149, 10.5535/arm.20235, 33985316, 2234-0645, 8137378, The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations (ex. breech presentation, ruptured membranes, twin pregnancy).WEB, Weerakkody, Yuranga, Cephalic index {{!, Radiology Reference Article {{!}} Radiopaedia.org |url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/cephalic-index?lang=us |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=Radiopaedia |language=en-US}}

Modern use in animal breeding

The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats.

Brachycephalic animals

missing image!
- Panting Frenchie.jpg -
Brachycephalic French Bulldog, with visible indications of laboured breathing.

File:Brachycephalie.png|thumb|(English Bulldog]]: Left: 1900â€“1920. Middle: Switzerland-Champion *1963 â€ 1971. Right: Female *1985 â€ 1993.)File:Boxer Dog Craniofacial Angle.jpg|thumb|Craniofacial angle of a Boxer ]]A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as “extreme brachycephalic”.WEB,www.thekennelclub.org.uk/health/for-owners/brachycephalic-health/, Brachycephalic Health, www.thekennelclub.org.uk, 2020-02-17, Because of the health issues brachycephaly is regarded as torture breedingFOUR PAWS International: The suffering of dogs with genetic disordersAnne Fawcett, Vanessa Barrs, Magdoline Awad et al.: Consequences and Management of Canine Brachycephaly in Veterinary Practice: Perspectives from Australian Veterinarians and Veterinary SpecialistsBorder Wars: Torture breedingFECAVA: Brachycephalic issues: shared resources as it often leads to the brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome.

List of brachycephalic dogs

missing image!
- Murlough Beach (05), February 2010.JPG -
Breeds with less extreme brachycephalia, such as the Boxer, have less compromised thermoregulation and thus are more tolerant of vigorous exercise and heat.

WEB, Lowrey, Sassafras, June 10, 2022, Brachycephalic Dog Breeds: A Guide to Flat-Faced Dogs,www.akc.org/expert-advice/dog-breeds/brachycephalic-dog-breeds/, 2023-05-06, American Kennel Club, en, {{div col|colwidth=20em}} {{div col end}}

List of brachycephalic cats

(File:Nipsu-Nappulan Non-Stop Exotic shorthair.JPG|thumb|An Exotic Shorthair)WEB, Brachycephalic Breeds of Cats {{!, ASPCA Pet Health Insurance |url=https://www.aspcapetinsurance.com/resources/brachycephalic-cats/ |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=www.aspcapetinsurance.com |language=en}}WEB, Breathing Problems in Flat-faced Cat Breeds {{!, Purina |url=https://www.purina-arabia.com/articles/cats/health/symptoms/flat-faced-cats |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=www.purina-arabia.com |language=en-AE}}{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

List of brachycephalic pigs

JOURNAL, Geiger M, Schoenebeck JJ, Schneider RA, Schmidt MJ, Fischer MS, SÃ¡nchez-Villagra MR, Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication: The Case of Brachycephaly, Integrative Organismal Biology, 3, 1, obab023, 2021-08-14, 34409262, 8366567, 10.1093/iob/obab023,

Middle White
Neijiang

List of brachycephalic rabbits

WEB, 24 March 2017, Brachy breeds â€“ not just dogs! Rabbits too,rabbitwelfare.co.uk/brachy-breeds-not-just-dogs-rabbits-too/,

Other

Mesaticephalic animals

missing image!
- Labrador Retriever black portrait Ellis.jpg -
Mesocephalic Labrador Retriever

A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not “mesocephalic”, but rather “mesaticephalic”, which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.BOOK, Evans HE, 1994, Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog, 3rd, Philadelphia, Saunders, 9780721632001, 132, 827702042, ENCYCLOPEDIA, mesaticephalic,medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/mesaticephalic, Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary, 2012, The Free Dictionary, 2 January 2019,

List of mesaticephalic canines

African Wild Dog
Alaskan Malamute
almost all spaniels
almost all spitz, except for the Chow Chow
American Eskimo Dog
American Foxhound
Appenzeller Sennenhund
Australian Cattle Dog
Australian Shepherd
Basenji
Beagle
Bearded Collie
Beauceron
Belgian Malinois
Belgian Sheepdog
Bernese Mountain Dog
Bichon FrisÃ©
Black and Tan Coonhound
Border Collie
Cardigan Welsh Corgi
Chesapeake Bay Retriever
pear- and deer-headed Chihuahuas
Chinese Crested
Chinook
Curly-Coated Retriever
Dalmatian
Dhole
English Foxhound
Field Spaniel
Finnish Lapphund
Finnish Spitz
Flat-Coated Retriever
German Shorthaired Pointer
German Wirehaired Pointer
German Spitz
Golden Retriever
Irish Setter
Komondor
Labrador Retriever
Miniature Pinscher
Pomeranian
Poodle (Miniature and Toy)
most terriers
Mudi
Pembroke Welsh Corgi
Puli
Rottweiler
Samoyed
Siberian Husky
St. Bernard
Vizsla
Weimaraner
Wirehaired Vizsla
Xoloitzcuintle

List of mesaticephalic cats

{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}}Note: Almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic{{div col|colwidth=20em}} {{div col end}}

List of mesaticephalic rabbits

Other

Dolichocephalic animals

missing image!
- Kufa charta - borzoja.jpg -
Dolichocephalic Borzoi

A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length).Note: Almost all representatives of the infraphylum Gnathostomata (with rare exceptions) are dolichocephalic.

List of dolichocephalic canids

{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}}{{div col|colwidth=20em}}Note: Almost all canidae are dolichocephalic {{div col end}}{{Anchor|List of dolicocephalic felines|reason=This is the old section name. Spelling of “dolichocephalic” was corrected on 21 February 2018.}}

List of dolichocephalic felines

{{div col end}}{{Anchor|List of dolicocephalic leporids|reason=This is the old section name. Spelling of “dolichocephalic” was corrected on 21 February 2018.}}

List of dolichocephalic leporids

Other

References

External links

www.medfriendly.com/cephalicindex.php5" title="web.archive.org/web/20120218134744www.medfriendly.com/cephalicindex.php5">Cephalic index
Brachycephalic Experienced Veterinarians Database {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830141352frenchievets.ning.com/ |date=30 August 2007 }}

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