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{{Short description|Filtration by force through a semipermeable membrane}}{{For|ultrafiltration in biology|Ultrafiltration (renal)}}Ultrafiltration (UF) is a variety of membrane filtration in which forces such as pressure or concentration gradients lead to a separation through a semipermeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are retained in the so-called retentate, while water and low molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane in the permeate (filtrate). This separation process is used in industry and research for purifying and concentrating macromolecular (103–106 Da) solutions, especially protein solutions.Ultrafiltration is not fundamentally different from microfiltration. Both of these are separate based on size exclusion or particle capture. It is fundamentally different from membrane gas separation, which separate based on different amounts of absorption and different rates of diffusion. Ultrafiltration membranes are defined by the molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of the membrane used. Ultrafiltration is applied in cross-flow or dead-end mode.

Applications

Industries such as chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing, food and beverage processing, and waste water treatment, employ ultrafiltration in order to recycle flow or add value to later products. Blood dialysis also utilizes ultrafiltration.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Drinking water

Ultrafiltration can be used for the removal of particulates and macromolecules from raw water to produce potable water. It has been used to either replace existing secondary (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation) and tertiary filtration (sand filtration and chlorination) systems employed in water treatment plants or as standalone systems in isolated regions with growing populations.JOURNAL, Clever, M., Jordt, F., Knauf, R., Räbiger, N., Rüdebusch, M., Hilker-Scheibel, R., Process water production from river water by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, Desalination, 1 December 2000, 131, 1–3, 325–336, 10.1016/S0011-9164(00)90031-6, When treating water with high suspended solids, UF is often integrated into the process, utilising primary (screening, flotation, filtration) and some secondary treatments as pre-treatment stages.JOURNAL, Laîné, J.-M., Vial, D., Moulart, Pierre, Status after 10 years of operation — overview of UF technology today, Desalination, 1 December 2000, 131, 1–3, 17–25, 10.1016/S0011-9164(00)90002-X, UF processes are currently preferred over traditional treatment methods for the following reasons: UF processes are currently limited by the high cost incurred due to membrane fouling and replacement.JOURNAL, Edwards, David, Donn, Alasdair, Meadowcroft, Charlotte, Membrane solution to a "significant risk" Cryptosporidium groundwater source, Desalination, 1 May 2001, 137, 1–3, 193–198, 10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00218-1, Additional pretreatment of feed water is required to prevent excessive damage to the membrane units.In many cases UF is used for pre filtration in reverse osmosis (RO) plants to protect the RO membranes.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Protein concentration

UF is used extensively in the dairy industry;JOURNAL, Villecco F., Aquino R.P., Calabrò V., Corrente M.I., D’Amore M., Grasso A., Naddeo V., Fuzzy-assisted ultrafiltration of whey by-products recovery, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, 2020, 5, 10.1007/s41207-019-0138-5, 212655195, particularly in the processing of cheese whey to obtain whey protein concentrate (WPC) and lactose-rich permeate.BOOK, Tamime, A. Y., Membrane Processing Dairy and Beverage Applications., 12 December 2012, Wiley, Chicester, 978-1118457023, JOURNAL, Nigam, Mayank Omprakash, Bansal, Bipan, Chen, Xiao Dong, Fouling and cleaning of whey protein concentrate fouled ultrafiltration membranes, Desalination, 1 January 2008, 218, 1–3, 313–322, 10.1016/j.desal.2007.02.027, In a single stage, a UF process is able to concentrate the whey 10–30 times the feed.BOOK, Cheryan, Munir, Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration Handbook, 1998, CRC Press, 1420069020, The original alternative to membrane filtration of whey was using steam heating followed by drum drying or spray drying. The product of these methods had limited applications due to its granulated texture and insolubility. Existing methods also had inconsistent product composition, high capital and operating costs and due to the excessive heat used in drying would often denature some of the proteins.Compared to traditional methods, UF processes used for this application: The potential for fouling is widely discussed, being identified as a significant contributor to decline in productivity. Cheese whey contains high concentrations of calcium phosphate which can potentially lead to scale deposits on the membrane surface. As a result, substantial pretreatment must be implemented to balance pH and temperature of the feed to maintain solubility of calcium salts.Ann-Sofi Jönsson, Gun Trägårdh,Ultrafiltration applications,Desalination,Volume 77,1990,Pages 135-179,ISSN 0011-9164weblink

Other applications

Principles

The basic operating principle of ultrafiltration uses a pressure induced separation of solutes from a solvent through a semi permeable membrane. The relationship between the applied pressure on the solution to be separated and the flux through the membrane is most commonly described by the Darcy equation: where {{math|J}} is the flux (flow rate per membrane area), {{math|TMP}} is the transmembrane pressure (pressure difference between feed and permeate stream), {{math|μ}} is solvent viscosity and {{math|Rt}} is the total resistance (sum of membrane and fouling resistance).{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Membrane fouling

Concentration polarization

When filtration occurs the local concentration of rejected material at the membrane surface increases and can become saturated. In UF, increased ion concentration can develop an osmotic pressure on the feed side of the membrane. This reduces the effective TMP of the system, therefore reducing permeation rate. The increase in concentrated layer at the membrane wall decreases the permeate flux, due to increase in resistance which reduces the driving force for solvent to transport through membrane surface. CP affects almost all the available membrane separation processes. In RO, the solutes retained at the membrane layer results in higher osmotic pressure in comparison to the bulk stream concentration. So the higher pressures are required to overcome this osmotic pressure. Concentration polarisation plays a dominant role in ultrafiltration as compared to microfiltration because of the small pore size membrane.Brian, P.L., 1965, Concentration polarization in reverse osmosis desalination with variable flux and incomplete salt rejection, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. 4: 439−445. Concentration polarization differs from fouling as it has no lasting effects on the membrane itself and can be reversed by relieving the TMP. It does however have a significant effect on many types of fouling.BOOK, Rizvi, Anil Kumar, Pabby, Ana Maria, Sastre, Syed S.H., Handbook of membrane separations : chemical, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological applications, 2007, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 978-0-8493-9549-9,

Types of fouling

Types of Foulants

Rouzan Shoshaa, Mohammad Y. Ashfaq, Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti,Recent developments in ultrafiltration membrane technology for the removal of potentially toxic elements, and enhanced antifouling performance: A review,Environmental Technology & Innovation, Volume 31, 2023, 103162, ISSN 2352-1864weblink The following are the four categories by which foulants of UF membranes can be defined in:

Particulate deposition

The following models describe the mechanisms of particulate deposition on the membrane surface and in the pores:

Scaling

As a result of concentration polarization at the membrane surface, increased ion concentrations may exceed solubility thresholds and precipitate on the membrane surface. These inorganic salt deposits can block pores causing flux decline, membrane degradation and loss of production. The formation of scale is highly dependent on factors affecting both solubility and concentration polarization including pH, temperature, flow velocity and permeation rate.JOURNAL, Antony, Alice, Low, Jor How, Gray, Stephen, Childress, Amy E., Le-Clech, Pierre, Leslie, Greg, Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatment systems: A review, Journal of Membrane Science, 1 November 2011, 383, 1–2, 1–16, 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.054,

Biofouling

Microorganisms will adhere to the membrane surface forming a gel layer – known as biofilm.JOURNAL, Flemming, H.-C., Schaule, G., Griebe, T., Schmitt, J., Tamachkiarowa, A., Biofouling—the Achilles heel of membrane processes, Desalination, 1 November 1997, 113, 2–3, 215–225, 10.1016/S0011-9164(97)00132-X, The film increases the resistance to flow, acting as an additional barrier to permeation. In spiral-wound modules, blockages formed by biofilm can lead to uneven flow distribution and thus increase the effects of concentration polarization.JOURNAL, Baker, J.S., Dudley, L.Y., Biofouling in membrane systems — A review, Desalination, 1 September 1998, 118, 1–3, 81–89, 10.1016/S0011-9164(98)00091-5,

Membrane arrangements

(File:Kunstnier.JPG|thumb|Hollow fibre module)Depending on the shape and material of the membrane, different modules can be used for ultrafiltration process.JOURNAL, Futselaar, Harry, Weijenberg, Dick C., System design for large-scale ultrafiltration applications, Desalination, 1 September 1998, 119, 1–3, 217–224, 10.1016/S0011-9164(98)00159-3, Commercially available designs in ultrafiltration modules vary according to the required hydrodynamic and economic constraints as well as the mechanical stability of the system under particular operating pressures.JOURNAL, Belfort, Georges, Membrane modules: comparison of different configurations using fluid mechanics, Journal of Membrane Science, 1 February 1988, 35, 3, 245–270, 10.1016/S0376-7388(00)80299-9, The main modules used in industry include:

Tubular modules

The tubular module design uses polymeric membranes cast on the inside of plastic or porous paper components with diameters typically in the range of 5–25 mm with lengths from 0.6–6.4 m. Multiple tubes are housed in a PVC or steel shell. The feed of the module is passed through the tubes, accommodating radial transfer of permeate to the shell side. This design allows for easy cleaning however the main drawback is its low permeability, high volume hold-up within the membrane and low packing density.

Hollow fibre

(File:ZeeWeed 500 ultrafiltration module at a NEWater plant.jpg|thumb|Self-supporting hollow fibre module)This design is conceptually similar to the tubular module with a shell and tube arrangement. A single module can consist of 50 to thousands of hollow fibres and therefore are self-supporting unlike the tubular design. The diameter of each fibre ranges from 0.2–3 mm with the feed flowing in the tube and the product permeate collected radially on the outside. The advantage of having self-supporting membranes as is the ease at which it can be cleaned due to its ability to be backflushed. Replacement costs however are high, as one faulty fibre will require the whole bundle to be replaced. Considering the tubes are of small diameter, using this design also makes the system prone to blockage.

Spiral-wound modules

(File:Spiral flow membrane module-en.svg|thumb|Spiral-wound membrane module)Are composed of a combination of flat membrane sheets separated by a thin meshed spacer material which serves as a porous plastic screen support. These sheets are rolled around a central perforated tube and fitted into a tubular steel pressure vessel casing. The feed solution passes over the membrane surface and the permeate spirals into the central collection tube. Spiral-wound modules are a compact and cheap alternative in ultrafiltration design, offer a high volumetric throughput and can also be easily cleaned. However it is limited by the thin channels where feed solutions with suspended solids can result in partial blockage of the membrane pores.

Plate and frame

This uses a membrane placed on a flat plate separated by a mesh like material. The feed is passed through the system from which permeate is separated and collected from the edge of the plate. Channel length can range from 10–60 cm and channel heights from 0.5–1.0 mm. This module provides low volume hold-up, relatively easy replacement of the membrane and the ability to feed viscous solutions because of the low channel height, unique to this particular design.

Process characteristics

The process characteristics of a UF system are highly dependent on the type of membrane used and its application. Manufacturers' specifications of the membrane tend to limit the process to the following typical specifications:WEB, Koch Membrane Systems, Membrane Products,weblink Koch Membrane Systems, 9 October 2013, WEB, US Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, Water Treatment Primer for Communities in Need,weblink US Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 11 October 2013, WEB, Con-Serv Manufacturing, Operation and Maintenance Manual - UF-6-HF Ultrafiltration System,weblink Con-Serv Manufacturing, 10 October 2013, BOOK, Laîné, prepared by Joseph G. Jacangelo, Samer Adham, Jean-Michel, Membrane filtration for microbial removal, 1997, AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association, Denver, CO, 0898678943, {| class="wikitable"! !! Hollow Fibre !! Spiral-wound !! Ceramic Tubular !! Plate and Frame

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