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{{Short description|Title for the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine Navy}}File:Alexios Apokaukos.jpg|thumb|right|The megas doux Alexios ApokaukosAlexios ApokaukosThe megas doux (, {{IPA-el|ˈmeÉ£az ˈðuks|pron}}, “grand duke“) was one of the highest positions in the hierarchy of the later Byzantine Empire, denoting the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy. It is sometimes also given in English by the half-Latinizations megaduke or megadux.{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}} The Greek word δούξ is the Hellenized form of the Latin term dux, meaning leader or commander.

History and functions

The office was initially created by Alexios I Komnenos ({{reign|1081|1118}}), who reformed the derelict Byzantine navy and amalgamated the remnants of its various provincial squadrons into a unified force under the {{transl|grc|megas doux}}.{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}} The Emperor’s brother-in-law John Doukas is usually considered to have been the first to hold the title, being raised to it in 1092, when he was tasked with suppressing the Turkish emir Tzachas. There is however a document dated to December 1085, where a monk Niketas signs as supervisor of the estates of an unnamed {{transl|grc|megas doux}}.{{sfn|Polemis|1968|p=67}}{{sfn|Skoulatos|1980|p=147}} The office of “{{transl|grc|doux}} [commander] of the fleet” (, {{transl|grc|doux tou stolou]}), with similar responsibilities and hence perhaps a precursor of the office of {{transl|grc|megas doux}}, is also mentioned at the time, being given {{circa|1086}} to Manuel Boutoumites and in 1090 to Constantine Dalassenos.{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}}{{sfn|Skoulatos|1980|pp=61, 181}}File:Seal of the sebastos, rhaiktor and megas doux Alexios Katakourianos.png|thumb|Seal of the {{transl|grc|sebastos}}, {{transl|grc|rhaiktor}} and {{transl|grc|megas doux}} Alexios Katakourianos, “born of the KomnenoiKomnenoiInitially, the office may have designated ad hoc commanders-in-chief placed in charge of combined naval and land expeditions, before coming to denote the head of the imperial fleet.{{sfn|Oikonomidis|1980|p=312}} John Doukas, the first known {{transl|grc|megas doux}}, led campaigns on both land and sea and was responsible for the re-establishment of firm Byzantine control over the Aegean and the islands of Crete and Cyprus in the years 1092–93 and over western Anatolia in 1097.{{sfn|Polemis|1968|pp=66–69}}{{sfn|Skoulatos|1980|pp=145–149}}{{sfn|Angold|1997|p=150}} From this time the {{transl|grc|megas doux}} was also given overall control of the provinces of Hellas, the Peloponnese and Crete, which chiefly provided the manpower and resources for the fleet.{{sfn|Angold|1997|p=151}}{{sfn|Oikonomidis|1980|pp=312–313}} However, since the {{transl|grc|megas doux}} was one of the Empire’s senior officials, and mostly involved with the central government and various military campaigns, de factο governance of these provinces rested with the provinces’ {{transl|grc|praitor}} or {{transl|grc|katepano}}, and various local leaders.{{sfn|Magdalino|2002|p=234}} During the 12th century, the post of {{transl|grc|megas doux}} was dominated by the Kontostephanos family;{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}} one of its members, Andronikos Kontostephanos, was one of the most important officers of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos ({{reign|1143|1180}}), assisting him in achieving many land and naval victories.With the virtual disappearance of the Byzantine fleet after the Fourth Crusade, the title was retained as an honorific in the Empire of Nicaea. Michael VIII Palaiologos ({{reign|1259|1282}}) assumed the title when he became regent for John IV Laskaris ({{reign|1258|1261}}), before being raised to senior co-emperor.{{sfn|Bartusis|1997|p=274}} It was also used by the Latin Empire, where, in {{circa|1207}}, the Latin emperor awarded the island of Lemnos and the hereditary title of to the Venetian (or possibly of mixed Greek and Venetian descent) Filocalo Navigajoso (“”).{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}}{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|pp=112, 130, 144}} His descendants inherited the title and the rule of Lemnos until evicted by the Byzantines in 1278.After the Byzantine recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the title reverted to its old function as commander-in-chief of the navy, and remained a high rank for the remainder of the empire, its holder ranking sixth after the emperor, between the {{transl|grc|protovestiarios}} and the {{transl|grc|protostrator}}.{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}}{{sfn|Bartusis|1997|p=381}} As such, it was also sometimes conferred upon foreigners in imperial service, the most notable among these being the Italian Licario, who recovered many Aegean islands for Emperor Michael VIII,{{sfn|Bartusis|1997|p=60}} and Roger de Flor, head of the Catalan Company.{{sfn|ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}} The mid-14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo-Kodinos lists the insignia of the {{transl|grc|megas doux}} as a golden-red {{transl|grc|skiadion}} hat decorated with embroideries in the {{transl|grc|klapoton}} style, without veil. Alternatively, a domed {{transl|grc|skaranikon}} hat could be worn, again in red and gold and decorated with golden wire, with a portrait of the emperor standing in front, and another of him enthroned in the rear. The {{transl|grc|megas doux}} also wore a rich silk tunic, the kabbadion, and could choose the fabric himself “from those that are in use”. His staff of office ({{transl|grc|dikanikion}}) featured carved knots and knobs in gold, bordered with silver braid.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|pp=153–154}} Pseudo-Kodinos also records that, while the other warships flew “the usual imperial flag” of the cross and the firesteels, the flagship of the {{transl|grc|megas doux}} flew an image of the emperor on horseback.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|p=167}} His subordinate officials were the {{transl|grc|megas droungarios tou stolou}}, the {{transl|grc|ameralios}}, the {{transl|grc|protokomes}}, a number of junior {{transl|grc|droungarioi}}, and of junior {{transl|grc|kometes}}.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|p=167}}The Serbian Empire, established in 1346 by Tsar Stefan Dushan, adopted various Byzantine titles, among them that of {{transl|grc|megas doux}}, which became the “grand voivode” ({{transl|sr|veliki vojvoda}}), albeit without any naval connotations. Holders of the office included senior noblemen such as Jovan UgljeÅ¡a{{sfn|PLP|loc=21150. Οὔγκλεσις Ἰωάννης}} and Jovan Oliver.{{sfn|PLP|loc=14888. Λίβερος Ἰωάννης}}

List of known holders

“>

Byzantine Empire {| class“wikitable” width“100%”

bgcolor=“#FFDEAD”! width=“18%” | Name! width=“15%” | Tenure! width=“18%” | Appointed by! width=“44%” | Notes! width=“5%” | Refs

John Doukas (megas doux)>John Doukas| 1092 â€“ unknown| Alexios I Komnenos	Dyrrhachium (theme)>Dyrrhachium.	ODB|loc=“Megas doux” (A. Kazhdan), p. 1330}}

Landulf (admiral)>Landulf| 1099–1105| Alexios I Komnenos| Admiral of Western origin.	Guilland	p=543}}{{sfn	1980|pp=169–171}}

| Isaac Kontostephanos| 1105–1108| Alexios I Komnenos

Bohemond I of Antioch>Bohemond.	Guilland	p=543}}{{sfn	1980|pp=130–132}}

| Marianos Maurokatakalon| 1108 â€“ unknown| Alexios I Komnenos| Successor of Isaac Konstostephanos.

Guilland	p=543}}{{sfn	1980|pp=186–187}}

| Eumathios Philokales| after 1112 â€“ after 1118| Alexios I Komnenos| Previously judicial official in Greece and long-time governor of Cyprus.

Guilland	pp=543–544}}{{sfn	1980|pp=79–82}}

Constantine Opos (megas doux)>Constantine Opos| Unknown| Alexios I Komnenos| Distinguished general in the campaigns against the Turks.	Guilland	p=544}}

| Leo Nikerites| Unknown| Alexios I Komnenos

Peloponnese (theme)>Peloponnese.	Guilland	p=544}}

| Nikephoros Vatatzes| Unknown| Alexios I Komnenos (?)| Known only through a seal, possibly dating to the reign of Alexios I.

Guilland	p=544}}

| Stephen Kontostephanos| ca. 1145 (?) â€“ 1149| Manuel I Komnenos| Brother-in-law of Manuel I, was killed while in office in 1149.

Guilland	p=545}}

Alexios Komnenos (megas doux)>Alexios Komnenos| ca. 1155 â€“ after 1161| Manuel I Komnenos| Son of Anna Komnene and Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger.	Guilland	p=544}}

| Andronikos Kontostephanos| after 1161 â€“ 1182| Manuel I Komnenos| Manuel’s nephew, he was the emperor’s most trusted and distinguished general. Blinded by the usurper Andronikos I Komnenos in 1182.

Guilland	pp=545–546}}

| John Komnenos| Unknown| Manuel I Komnenos

sebastokrator Andronikos Komnenos. He fell at Battle of Myriokephalon>Myriokephalon in 1176.	Guilland	p=545}}

| Constantine Angelos Doukas| Unknown| Isaac II Angelos

grc	Plovdiv>Philippopolis, he led an unsuccessful usurpation attempt.	Guilland	p=546}}

| Michael Stryphnos| ca. 1195 â€“ after 1201/1202| Alexios III Angelos| A favourite of Alexios III. He reportedly sold off the fleet’s equipment to enrich himself.

Guilland	pp=546–547}}

| Theodotos Phokas| ca. 1210| Theodore I Laskaris

Empire of Nicaea>Nicaea, known only from a monastic property deed dating to between 1206 and 1212.	Guilland	p=547}}

| John Gabalas| ca. 1240| John III Vatatzes| A letter by King Henry I of Cyprus to the anonymous “great ruler of the God-guarded island of Rhodes and the Cyclades”, identified by Spyridon Lambros with John, refers to him as pansebastos sebastos, megas doux, and gambros of the emperor.

Savvides	p=186}}

Michael VIII Palaiologos>Michael Palaiologos| 1258| John IV Laskaris| The future Michael VIII, he assumed the office after the murder of George Mouzalon in September 1258, when he was named regent for the young John IV. He was soon after raised to despotes and eventually to emperor.	Guilland	p=547}}{{sfn	loc=21528. Παλαιολόγος, Μιχαὴλ VIII. ∆ούκας Ἂγγελος Κομνηνός}}

| Michael Tzamantouros Laskaris| 1259 â€“ ca. 1269/72| Michael VIII Palaiologos| Brother of Theodore I Laskaris, due to his advanced age he never held actual command of the fleet. He held the office until his death.

Guilland	p=548}}{{sfn	loc=14554. Λάσκαρις, Μιχαὴλ Τζαμάντουρος}}

| Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos| ca. 1272/73 â€“ ca. 1274/75| Michael VIII Palaiologos| Previously protostrator and de facto commander of the fleet since ca. 1263. Held the office of megas doux until his death.

Guilland	pp=548–549}}{{sfn	loc=29751. Φιλανθρωπηνός, Ἀλέξιος Δούκας}}

| Licario| ca. 1275/77 â€“ unknown| Michael VIII Palaiologos

Lordship of Negroponte>Negroponte and many of the Aegean islands.	Guilland	p=549}}{{sfn	loc=8154. Ἰκάριος}}

| John de lo Cavo| after 1278| Michael VIII Palaiologos| Genoese privateer who entered Byzantine service, lord of Anafi and Rhodes.

Geanakoplos	p=211}}{{sfn	1988|p=202}}

| Roger de Flor| 1303–1304| Andronikos II Palaiologos| Leader of the mercenary Catalan Company. He resigned his post in late 1304 favour of his lieutenant, Berenguer d’Entença, and was murdered a few months later.

Guilland	p=549}}{{sfn	loc=24386. Ῥοντζέριος}}

| Berenguer d’Entença| 1304–1305| Andronikos II Palaiologos| Roger de Flor’s lieutenant and successor as leader of the mercenary Catalan Company. He resigned his office after disagreeing with the emperor

Guilland	pp=549–550}}{{sfn	1993	PLP|loc=27580. Τέντζα Μπυριγέριος}}

| Fernand Ximenes de Arenos| 1307/1308 â€“ unknown| Andronikos II Palaiologos| One of the leaders of the Catalan Company, he was named megas doux defected to the Byzantines

Guilland	p=550}}{{sfn	1993	PLP|loc=27944. Τζιμῆς Φαρέντα}}

| Syrgiannes Palaiologos| 1321–1322 or 1328/29| Andronikos II Palaiologos| One of the main partisans of the young Andronikos III Palaiologos in the Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328, he defected to the aged Andronikos II, who rewarded him with the office of megas doux. After plotting against him as well, he was imprisoned.

Guilland	p=550}}{{sfn	1993	PLP|loc=27167. Συργιάννης Παλαιολόγος Φιλανθρωπηνὸς Κομνηνός}}

| Isaac Palaiologos Asanes| unknown â€“ 1341| Andronikos III Palaiologos| Promoted to panhypersebastos, and replaced in office by Alexios Apokaukos.

Guilland	p=550}}{{sfn	loc=1494. Ἀσάνης, Ἰσαάκιος Παλαιολόγος}}

| Alexios Apokaukos| 1341–1345| Andronikos III PalaiologosJohn V Palaiologos

John VI Kantakouzenos>John Kantakouzenos, Apokaukos was instrumental in the outbreak of the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, and until his murder in 1345 led the anti-Kantakouzenist regency for John V	Guilland	p=550}}{{sfn	1993|pp=187–201}}

| Asomatianos Tzamplakon| 1348–1349| John VI Kantakouzenos

Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–1349)>Byzantine–Genoese war of 1348–1349. He died some time before 1356	Guilland	p=550}}{{sfn	1993	PLP|loc=27753. Τζαμπλάκων Ἀσωματιανός}}

| [Paul?] Mamonas| after 1393/94 – before 1416/17| Manuel II Palaiologos| The Mamonas family were hereditary rulers of Monemvasia. [Paul] Mamonas ruled the city between 1384 and 1416/17

Guilland	p=551}}{{sfn	loc=16580. Μαμωνᾶς Παῦλος (?)}}

| Manuel| unknown â€“ 1410| Manuel II Palaiologos| Mentioned only in an anonymous chronicle as dying of an epidemic in 1409/10

Guilland	p=551}}{{sfn	loc=16711. Μανουήλ}}

| [Manuel?] Phrangopoulos| ca. 1429| Theodore II Palaiologos

protostrator>prōtostratōr to megas doux of the Despotate of the Morea in 1429. Manuel Phrangopoulos was a senior official of the Despotate already since the 1390s.	PLP|loc=30139. Φραγκόπουλος }}

| Paraspondelos| ca. 1436| John VIII Palaiologos| Known only as the father-in-law of Demetrios Palaiologos.

Guilland	p=551}}{{sfn	loc=21905. Παρασπόνδυλος}}

| Loukas Notaras| after 1441 â€“ 1453| John VIII PalaiologosConstantine XI Palaiologos

mesazon>mesazōn). He was executed by the Ottomans after the Fall of Constantinople	Guilland	p=551}}{{sfn	loc=20730. Nοταρᾶς Λουκᾶς}}

“>

Empire of Trebizond {| class“wikitable” width“100%”

bgcolor=“#FFDEAD”! width=“18%” | Name! width=“15%” | Tenure! width=“18%” | Appointed by! width=“44%” | Notes! width=“5%” | Refs| Lekes Tzatzintzaios| unknown–1332|

Basil of Trebizond>Basil Megas Komnenos on his arrival to Trebizond.	PLP|loc=8597. Ἰωάννης}}

John the Eunuch (Trebizond)>John| 1332–1344	Basil of Trebizond>Basil Megas KomnenosIrene Palaiologina	Trapezuntine Civil War on the side of Empress Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond>Irene Palaiologina.	PLP|loc=8597. Ἰωάννης}}

| Niketas Scholarios| 1344–13451349–1361

John III of Trebizond>John III Megas KomnenosMichael of Trebizond	Alexios III of Trebizond>Alexios III Megas Komnenos	Trapezuntine Civil War, as a partisan of John III of Trebizond>John III Megas Komnenos. Imprisoned by Michael of Trebizond	in 1345, he was reinstated by Michael in 1349 and remained in office under Alexios III of Trebizond>Alexios III, probably until his death in 1361.	PLP|loc=27305. Σχολάριος Νικήτας}}

| John Kabazites| after 1344 – 1349

Michael of Trebizond>Michael Megas Komnenos	Trapezuntine Civil War against Empress Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond>Irene Palaiologina. Killed fighting against the Genoese at Kaffa.	PLP|loc=10010. Καβαζίτης Ἰωάννης}}

| Scholaris| ca. 1395|| Otherwise unknown/unidentified.

PLP|loc=27308. Σχολάρις}}

Cultural references

In the 1490 Valencian epic romance Tirant lo Blanc, the valiant knight Tirant the White from Brittany travels to Constantinople and becomes a Byzantine megadux. This story has no basis in actual history, though it may reflect the above-mentioned cases of the office being conferred upon foreigners.

References

{{Reflist|24em}}

Sources

• BOOK, Angold, Michael, 1997, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History, Second Edition, Longman, 0-582-29468-1,
• BOOK, Mark C., Bartusis, The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997, 0-8122-1620-2,
• {{Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West}}
• {{Recherches sur les institutions byzantines | volume = I | chapter = Le Drongaire de la flotte, le Grand drongaire de la flotte, le Duc de la flotte, le Mégaduc | pages = 535–562}}
• {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
• {{Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations}}
• {{The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453|edition=Second}}
• {{The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos}}
• BOOK, Oikonomidis, N., Nicolas Oikonomides, Οι αυθένται των Κρητών το 1118, The lords of the Cretans in 1118, 308–317, Πεπραγμένα του Δ’ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Ηράκλειο, 29 Αυγούστου - 3 Δεκεμβρίου 1976. Τόμος Β′ Βυζαντινοί και μέσοι χρόνοι, Athens, Greek, University of Crete, 1980,anemi.lib.uoc.gr/metadata/0/6/1/metadata-1643884844-836717-19947.tkl,
• {{Polemis-The Doukai}}
• JOURNAL, Savvides, Alexis, Η γενουατική κατάληψη της Ρόδου το 1248–1250 μ.Χ., Παρνασσός, 32, 1990, 183–199, Greek,
• {{Les personnages byzantins de l’Alexiade}}
• {{Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit}}
• {{The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium}}
• BOOK, Jean, Verpeaux, French, Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices, Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1966,

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