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factoids

factoids

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone.JOURNAL, Cahoreau C, Klett D, Combarnous Y, Structure-function relationships of glycoprotein hormones and their subunits’ ancestors, Frontiers in Endocrinology, 6, 26, 2015-02-26, 25767463, 4341566, 10.3389/fendo.2015.00026, free, FSH is synthesized and secreted by the gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary glandWEB,www.webmd.com/women/follicle-stimulating-hormone#1, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone, WebMD, and regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes of the body. FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH) work together in the reproductive system.WEB, Richard, Bowen,www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/lhfsh.html, Luteinizing and Follicle Stimulating Hormones, www.vivo.colostate.edu, 2019-05-06,

Structure

{{multiple issues|section=yes|{{confusing|section|date=March 2022}}{{technical|section needs attention from an expert from either or because it|date=March 2022}}}}FSH is a 35.5 kDa glycoprotein heterodimer, consisting of two polypeptide units, alpha and beta. Its structure is similar to those of luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The alpha subunits of the glycoproteins LH, FSH, TSH, and hCG are identical and consist of 96 amino acids, while the beta subunits vary.JOURNAL, Pierce JG, Parsons TF, Glycoprotein hormones: structure and function, Annual Review of Biochemistry, 50, 1, 465–95, July 1981, 6267989, 10.1146/annurev.bi.50.070181.002341, WEB, CGA glycoprotein hormones, alpha polypeptide [Homo sapiens (human)],www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/1081, National Center for Biotechnology Information, NCBI, 2 January 2016, Both subunits are required for biological activity. FSH has a beta subunit of 111 amino acids (FSH β), which confers its specific biologic action, and is responsible for interaction with the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor.JOURNAL, Jiang X, Liu H, Chen X, Chen PH, Fischer D, Sriraman V, Yu HN, Arkinstall S, He X, Structure of follicle-stimulating hormone in complex with the entire ectodomain of its receptor, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 31, 12491–6, July 2012, 22802634, 3411987, 10.1073/pnas.1206643109, Hendrickson, Published online ahead of print 2012-07-16, free, 2012PNAS..10912491J, Wayne A., 1091-6490, Wayne Hendrickson, The sugar portion of the hormone is covalently bonded to asparagine, and is composed of N-acetylgalactosamine, mannose, N-acetylglucosamine, galactose, and sialic acid.

Genes

In humans, the gene for the alpha subunit is located at cytogenetic location 6q14.3.{{OMIM|118850|CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, ALPHA CHAIN; CGA}} It is expressed in two cell types, most notably the basophils of the anterior pituitary. The gene for the FSH beta subunit is located on chromosome 11p13, and is expressed in gonadotropes of the pituitary cells, controlled by GnRH, inhibited by inhibin, and enhanced by activin.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Activity and functions

FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation and reproductive processes of the human body.JOURNAL, Ulloa-Aguirre A, Reiter E, Crépieux P, FSH Receptor Signaling: Complexity of Interactions and Signal Diversity, Endocrinology, 159, 8, 3020–3035, August 2018, 29982321, 10.1210/en.2018-00452, free,

• In both males and females, FSH stimulates the maturation of primordial germ cells.
• In males, FSH induces Sertoli cells to secrete androgen-binding proteins (ABPs), regulated by inhibin’s negative feedback mechanism on the anterior pituitary. Specifically, activation of Sertoli cells by FSH sustains spermatogenesis and stimulates inhibin B secretion.
• In females, FSH initiates follicular growth, specifically affecting granulosa cells. With the concomitant rise in inhibin B, FSH levels then decline in the late follicular phase. This seems to be critical in selecting only the most advanced follicle to proceed to ovulation. At the end of the luteal phase, there is a slight rise in FSH that seems to be of importance to start the next ovulatory cycle.

Control of FSH release from the pituitary gland is unknown. Low frequency gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulses increase FSH mRNA levels in the rat,JOURNAL, Dalkin AC, Haisenleder DJ, Gilrain JT, Aylor K, Yasin M, Marshall JC, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone regulation of gonadotropin subunit gene expression in female rats: actions on follicle-stimulating hormone beta messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) involve differential expression of pituitary activin (beta-B) and follistatin mRNAs, Endocrinology, 140, 2, 903–8, February 1999, 9927322, 10.1210/endo.140.2.6483, 1945-7170, 1999-02-01, free, but is not directly correlated with an increase in circulating FSH.JOURNAL, Sharma TP, Nett TM, Karsch FJ, Phillips DJ, Lee JS, Herkimer C, Padmanabhan V, Neuroendocrine control of FSH secretion: IV. Hypothalamic control of pituitary FSH-regulatory proteins and their relationship to changes in FSH synthesis and secretion, Biology of Reproduction, 86, 6, 171, June 2012, 22423050, 3386145, 10.1095/biolreprod.111.098442, Published online before print 2012-03-14, free, 2012-06-01, GnRH has been shown to play an important role in the secretion of FSH, with hypothalamic-pituitary disconnection leading to a cessation of FSH. GnRH administration leads to a return of FSH secretion. FSH is subject to oestrogen feed-back from the gonads via the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis.File:Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during menstrual cycle.png|thumb|450px|Reference ranges for the blood content of follicle-stimulating hormone levels during the menstrual cyclemenstrual cycle

Effects in females

FSH stimulates the growth and recruitment of immature ovarian follicles in the ovary. In early (small) antral follicles, FSH is the major survival factor that rescues the small antral follicles (2–5 mm in diameter for humans) from apoptosis (programmed death of the somatic cells of the follicle and oocyte). In the luteal-follicle phase transition period the serum levels of progesterone and estrogen (primarily estradiol) decrease and no longer suppress the release of FSH, consequently FSH peaks at about day three (day one is the first day of menstrual flow). The cohort of small antral follicles is normally sufficient in number to produce enough Inhibin B to lower FSH serum levels.{{cn|date=September 2023}}In addition, there is evidence that gonadotropin surge-attenuating factor produced by small follicles during the first half of the follicle phase also exerts a negative feedback on pulsatile luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion amplitude, thus allowing a more favorable environment for follicle growth and preventing premature luteinization.JOURNAL, Fowler PA, Sorsa-Leslie T, Harris W, Mason HD, Ovarian gonadotrophin surge-attenuating factor (GnSAF): where are we after 20 years of research?, Reproduction, 126, 6, 689–99, December 2003, 14748688, 10.1530/rep.0.1260689, 10.1.1.516.1420, free, 1741-7899, As a woman nears perimenopause, the number of small antral follicles recruited in each cycle diminishes and consequently insufficient Inhibin B is produced to fully lower FSH and the serum level of FSH begins to rise. Eventually, the FSH level becomes so high that downregulation of FSH receptors occurs and by postmenopause any remaining small secondary follicles no longer have FSH nor LH receptors.JOURNAL, Vihko KK, Gonadotropins and ovarian gonadotropin receptors during the perimenopausal transition period, Maturitas, 23 Suppl, Supplement, S19-22, May 1996, 8865134, 10.1016/s0378-5122(96)90009-2, When the follicle matures and reaches 8–10 mm in diameter it starts to secrete significant amounts of estradiol. Normally in humans only one follicle becomes dominant and survives to grow to 18–30 mm in size and ovulate, the remaining follicles in the cohort undergo atresia. The sharp increase in estradiol production by the dominant follicle (possibly along with a decrease in gonadotrophin surge-attenuating factor) cause a positive effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary and rapid GnRH pulses occur and an LH surge results.The increase in serum estradiol levels cause a decrease in FSH production by inhibiting GnRH production in the hypothalamus.BOOK, Dickerson LM, Shrader SP, Diaz VA, Wells BG, DiPiro JT, Talbert RL, Yee GC, Matzke GR, Pharmacotherapy: a pathophysiologic approach,archive.org/details/pharmacotherapyp00dipi_512, registration, McGraw-Hill Medical, 2008, Chapter 8: Contraception, 1313–28, 978-0-07-147899-1, The decrease in serum FSH level causes the smaller follicles in the current cohort to undergo atresia as they lack sufficient sensitivity to FSH to survive. Occasionally two follicles reach the 10 mm stage at the same time by chance and as both are equally sensitive to FSH both survive and grow in the low FSH environment and thus two ovulations can occur in one cycle possibly leading to non-identical (dizygotic) twins.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Effects in males

FSH stimulates primary spermatocytes to undergo the first division of meiosis, to form secondary spermatocytes.FSH enhances the production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes by binding to FSH receptors on their basolateral membranes,BOOK, Boulpaep EL, Boron WF, Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular approach, Elsevier Saunders, St. Louis, Mo, 2005, 1125, 978-1-4160-2328-9, and is critical for the initiation of spermatogenesis.

Measurement

Follicle-stimulating hormone is typically measured in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, typically day three to five, counted from last menstruation. At this time, the levels of estradiol (E2) and progesterone are at the lowest point of the menstrual cycle. FSH levels in this time is often called basal FSH levels, to distinguish from the increased levels when approaching ovulation.WEB,labtestsonline.org/tests/follicle-stimulating-hormone-fsh, FSH, labtestsonline.org, 2019-05-06, FSH is measured in international units (IU). For Human Urinary FSH, one IU is defined as the amount of FSH that has an activity corresponding to 0.11388 mg of pure Human Urinary FSH.World Health Organization Technical Report Series N0. 565. WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization. Twenty-sixth Report. World Health Organization. Geneva. 1975 For recombinant FSH, one IU corresponds to approximately 0.065 to 0.075 Î¼g of a “fill-by-mass” product.JOURNAL, Gonadotropin preparations: past, present, and future perspectives, Fertility and Sterility, 90, 5 Suppl, S13-20, November 2008, 19007609, 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.08.031, Practice Committee Of American Society For Reproductive Medicine, Birmingham, free, The mean values for women before ovulation are around (3.8-8.8) IU/L. After ovulation these levels drop to between (1.8-5.1) IU/L. At the mid of the menstrual cycle it reaches its highest value, between (4.5-22.5) IU/L. During menopause, the values goes up even more, between (16.74-113.59) IU/L.For men, the mean values are around (16.74-113.59) IU/L.

Disease states

FSH levels are normally low during childhood and, in females, high after menopause.

High FSH levels

The most common reason for high serum FSH concentration is in a female who is undergoing or has recently undergone menopause. High levels of FSH indicate that the normal restricting feedback from the gonad is absent, leading to an unrestricted pituitary FSH production. FSH may contribute to postmenopausal osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease.JOURNAL, Zhu D, Li X, Macrae VE, Simoncini T, Fu X, Extragonadal Effects of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone on Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease in Women during Menopausal Transition, Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 29, 8, 571–580, August 2018, 29983231, 10.1016/j.tem.2018.06.001, 51602238,www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/69915997/Extragonadal_Effects_of_Follicle_Stimulating_Hormone_on_Osteoporosis.pdf, 20.500.11820/93f9b1f9-3c0d-4d4f-b18c-63842d2d075d, free, If high FSH levels occur during the reproductive years, it is abnormal. Conditions with high FSH levels include:

1. Premature menopause also known as premature ovarian failure
2. Poor ovarian reserve also known as premature ovarian aging
3. Gonadal dysgenesis, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome
4. Castration
5. Swyer syndrome
6. Certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia
7. Testicular failure
8. LupusJOURNAL, Li J, May W, McMurray RW, Pituitary hormones and systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis and Rheumatism, 52, 12, 3701–12, December 2005, 16320320, 10.1002/art.21436,

Most of these conditions are associated with subfertility or infertility. Therefore, high FSH levels are an indication of subfertility or infertility.

Low FSH levels

Diminished secretion of FSH can result in failure of gonadal function (hypogonadism). This condition is typically manifested in males as failure in production of normal numbers of sperm. In females, cessation of reproductive cycles is commonly observed.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}Conditions with very low FSH secretions are:

1. Polycystic Ovarian SyndromeWEB,medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000369.htm, Polycystic ovary syndrome: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, medlineplus.gov, en, 2019-05-06,
2. Polycystic ovarian syndrome + obesity + hirsutism + infertility
3. Kallmann syndrome
4. Aromatase excess syndrome
5. Hypothalamic suppression
6. Hypopituitarism
7. Hyperprolactinemia
8. Gonadotropin deficiency
9. Gonadal suppression therapy
   • GnRH antagonist
   • GnRH agonist (downregulation).

Isolated FSH deficiency due to mutations in the gene for β-subunit of FSH is rare with 13 cases reported in the literature up to 2019.Misgar RA, Wani AI, Bankura B, Bashir MI, Roy A, Das M (2019) FSH β-subunit mutations in two sisters: the first report from the Indian sub-continent and review of previous cases. Gynecol Endocrinol 2:1-4

Use as therapy

{{Further|Gonadotropin preparations|Controlled ovarian hyperstimulation|Ovulation induction}}FSH is used commonly in infertility therapy, mainly for ovarian hyperstimulation as part of IVF. In some cases, it is used in ovulation induction for reversal of anovulation as well.FSH is available mixed with LH activity in various menotropins including more purified forms of urinary gonadotropins such as Menopur, as well as without LH activity as recombinant FSH (Gonapure, Gonal F, Follistim, Follitropin alpha).

Potential role in vascularization of solid tumors

Elevated FSH receptor levels have been detected in the endothelia of tumor vasculature in a very wide range of solid tumors. FSH binding is thought to upregulate neovascularization via at least two mechanisms â€“ one in the VEGF pathway, and the other VEGF independent â€“ related to the development of umbilical vasculature when physiological. This presents possible use of FSH and FSH-receptor antagonists as an anti-tumor angiogenesis therapy (cf. avastin for current anti-VEGF approaches).JOURNAL, Radu A, Pichon C, Camparo P, Antoine M, Allory Y, Couvelard A, Fromont G, Hai MT, Ghinea N, Expression of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor in tumor blood vessels, The New England Journal of Medicine, 363, 17, 1621–30, October 2010, 20961245, 10.1056/NEJMoa1001283, free,

See also

• EFSH, a follicle-stimulating hormone obtained from equine species

References

{{Reflist}}

External links

{{commons category}}

• FSH - Lab Tests Online

{{GnRH and gonadotropins}}{{Hormones}}{{Assisted reproductive technology}}{{GnRH and gonadotropin receptor modulators}}