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Three Rs (animal research)
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{{Short description|Principles for ethical use of animals in science}}{{about|guiding principles in animal research|other uses|Three Rs (disambiguation)}}{{use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}File:Wistar rat.jpg|thumb|A Wistar laboratory rat ]]The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in product testing and scientific research. They were first described by W. M. S. Russell and R. L. Burch in 1959.Russell, W.M.S. and Burch, R.L., (1959). The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique, Methuen, London. {{ISBN|0900767782}} weblink A digital version of the Principles may be accessed for free on the website of Johns Hopkins University's Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT). The 3Rs are: - the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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- Replacement: methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in research
- Reduction: use of methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.
- Refinement: use of methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, and enhance animal welfare for the animals used.
History
In 1954, the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) decided to sponsor systematic research on the progress of humane techniques in the laboratory.BOOK,weblink Continuing Efforts to More Efficiently Use Laboratory Animals, 2004, National Academies Press (US), In October of that year, William Russell, described as a brilliant young zoologist who happened to be also a psychologist and a classical scholar, and Rex Burch, a microbiologist, were appointed to inaugurate a systematic study of laboratory techniques in their ethical aspects. In 1956, they prepared a general report to the Federation's committees, and this report formed the nucleus of the book which was completed at the beginning of 1958. Over much of the period they worked with a special Consultative Committee, chaired by Professor Peter Medawar.As a contribution to the centenary of The Origin of Species, the quotations at the head of each chapter are all from the works of Charles Darwin.Scope and development
A common misconception of the 3Rs is that they refer only to replacement;Rowan, A.D., (1991). The alternatives concept. Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter, 2(2): 1-2 weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221193633weblink |date=2014-12-21 }} however, their scope is much broader. Moreover, while the 3Rs were designed for research on laboratory animal models, their implementation has been encouraged also in farmed animalsJOURNAL, Rault, Jean-Loup, Binder, Regina, Grimm, Herwig, 2022-11-25, Rethink farm animal production: The 3Rs,weblink Science, en, 378, 6622, 842, 10.1126/science.adf3351, 36423289, 253839546, 0036-8075, JOURNAL, Blattner, Charlotte E., 3R for farmed animals â a legal argument for consistency,weblink Global Journal of Animal Law, 2016-01-15, 2014, 1, 1â26, and wildlife conservation research.JOURNAL, Zemanova, Miriam A., 2020-03-17, Towards more compassionate wildlife research through the 3Rs principles: moving from invasive to non-invasive methods,weblink Wildlife Biology, 2020, 1, 10.2981/wlb.00607, 216291100, 0909-6396, free, 10453/143370, free, WEB, Zemanova, Miriam A., 2023-11-30, The 3Rs Principles in Wildlife Research,weblink Replacement:In the original book, the 3Rs were restricted, arbitrarily, to vertebrates. Russell and Burch discussed the possibility of suffering with reference to sentience. They used the term "replacement technique" for any scientific method using non-sentient material to replace methods which use conscious living vertebrates. This non-sentient material included higher plants, microorganisms, and the more degenerate metazoan endoparasites which, they argued, had nervous and sensory systems that were almost atrophied. They acknowledged that the arbitrary exclusion of invertebrates meant that in several contexts, these species could be considered as possible replacements for vertebrate subjects; they termed this "comparative substitution". Russell and Burch also considered levels of replacement. In "relative replacement", animals are still required, though during an experiment they are exposed, probably or certainly, to no distress at all. In "absolute replacement", animals are not required at all at any stage.Replacement strategies include:- Tissue culture
- Perfused organs
- Tissue slices
- Cellular fractions
- Subcellular fractions
- Non-invasive techniques
- Appropriate anaesthetic and analgesic regimes for pain relief
- Training animals to voluntarily co-operate with procedures (e.g. blood sampling) so that they have greater control over the procedure reduce distress
- Provision of species-appropriate housing and environmental enrichment which meet the animals' physical and behavioural needs (e.g. providing opportunities for nesting for rodents)
Criticism
Some have criticized the Three Rs for what they call "ambiguities" and tensions in the understanding and implementation of different prongs of the approach âRefinement, Reduction and Replacement.JOURNAL, Olsson IA, Franco NH, Weary DM, Sandøe P, The 3Rs Principle â Mind the Ethical Gap!, ALTEX, 2012, Proceedings of WC8,weblink 14 July 2015, This is, in part, because different stakeholders (e.g. animal experimenters, institutional figures, policy makers, activists and the public) may interpret the Three Rs differently.WEB, Balancing Reduction and Refinement,weblink PiLAS, 2015-11-27, 2017-10-08,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20171008180245weblink">weblink dead, The 3Rs principles do not address some issues, such as the ethics of using animals in research and focus instead on improving the humane use of animals which are used.Others have noted that promotion of the 3Rs has failed to reduce the number of animals used in experiments.JOURNAL, Goodman J, Chandna A, Roe K, Trends in animal use at US research facilities, Journal of Medical Ethics, 41, 7, 567â9, July 2015, 25717142, 10.1136/medethics-2014-102404, 46187262, JOURNAL, Hendriksen C, Spielmann H, New techniques for producing transgenic animals - a mixed blessing from both the scientific and animal welfare perspectives, Alternatives to Laboratory Animals, 42, 2, 93â4, May 2014, 24901903, 10.1177/026119291404200201, 29121155,weblink free, However, this may be the result of a misunderstanding of the definition of 'Reduction', not an absolute reduction in the number of animals used, but a reduction in the number of animals used per study. By its nature, it is difficult to estimate the number of animals not used in scientific procedures as a result of Replacement or Reduction techniques however, despite the rapid increases in medical research, animal numbers have not increased at the same rate.WEB, Getting the measure of replacement, reduction and refinement - NC3Rs,weblink dead,weblink Aug 3, 2017, Aug 16, 2022, www.nc3rs.org.uk, In a review of dozens of articles involving mice in prolonged pain experiments, researchers found "there were no references to the '3Rs{{'"}} which in turn "raise serious questions about whether the 3Rs' principles of Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement are being appropriately implemented by researchers and institutions". The researchers continued,JOURNAL, Balcombe J, Ferdowsian H, Briese L, Prolonged pain research in mice: trends in reference to the 3Rs, Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 16, 1, 77â95, 2013, 23282295, 10.1080/10888705.2013.741004, 27443336,weblink That the 3Rs or any of the 3Rs' componentsâReplace, Reduce, or Refineâwere not mentioned in any of the... studies suggests that prolonged mouse pain researchers may be unaware of or indifferent to the 3Rs framework and that this aspect is not considered relevant in the peer review process of manuscripts for scientific journals... [T]he growing proportion of the number of studies...in this paper suggests that adherence to guidelines and/or animal use committee requirements is not translating into significant progress from a reduction or replacement perspective.Following a review of the quality of experimental design in published journal articles,JOURNAL, Kilkenny C, Parsons N, Kadyszewski E, Festing MF, Cuthill IC, Fry D, Hutton J, Altman DG, 6, Survey of the quality of experimental design, statistical analysis and reporting of research using animals, PLOS ONE, 4, 11, e7824, November 2009, 19956596, 2779358, 10.1371/journal.pone.0007824, 2009PLoSO...4.7824K, free, including the use of the 3Rs, it was found that the use and reporting of these principles was sporadic. As a result, the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) guidelines were developedJOURNAL, Kilkenny C, Browne WJ, Cuthill IC, Emerson M, Altman DG, Improving bioscience research reporting: the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting animal research, PLOS Biology, 8, 6, e1000412, June 2010, 20613859, 2893951, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412, free, and published in 2010. The ARRIVE guidelines present a 20-point list of items which must be reported in publications which have used animals in scientific research, including sample size calculations, explicit descriptions of the environmental enrichment employed and welfare-related assessments made during the study. Many journals now require authors to comply with the ARRIVE guidelines in the preparation of manuscripts.WEB,weblink The role of journals in implementing the 3Rs: ARRIVE and beyond, 19 January 2015, NC3Rs, A follow-up review published in 2014JOURNAL, Baker D, Lidster K, Sottomayor A, Amor S, Two years later: journals are not yet enforcing the ARRIVE guidelines on reporting standards for pre-clinical animal studies, PLOS Biology, 12, 1, e1001756, January 2014, 24409096, 3883646, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001756, free, found that there were still low reporting levels of some elements, such as reporting of appropriate statistical methods and the avoidance of bias.In a survey of scientists in Portugal who had recently undergone training in the Three Rs, researchers found that a "surprisingly large number of researchers were unaware of the 3Rs principle, even those who had worked with animal models for over 10 years" and that subsequent training in the Three Rs "did not change perceptions on the current and future needs for animal use in research", but did increase knowledge of the application of the 3RsJOURNAL, Franco NH, Olsson IA, Scientists and the 3Rs: attitudes to animal use in biomedical research and the effect of mandatory training in laboratory animal science, Laboratory Animals, 48, 1, 50â60, January 2014, 23940123, 10.1177/0023677213498717, 10216/78435, 26007065,weblink free, The authors found that the training they provided "appear to have little influence on researchers' acceptance of replacement alternatives to animal use".Organisations
The Home Office (UK) led the Inter-Departmental Group on Reduction, Refinement and Replacement, which aims to improve the application of the 3Rs and promote research into alternatives, reducing the need for toxicity testing through better sharing of data, and encouraging the validation and acceptance of alternatives. The Data Sharing Group drafted the Inter-Departmental Data Sharing Condordat published in August 2000 and was re-formed in June 2002 to consider the scope for the greater application of the 3Rs. Arising from the Government response to the report of the House of Lords Select Committee on animals in scientific procedures, the Group was asked to explore the scope for a UK centre for research into the 3Rs. The Group reported to Ministers that there was support for a body which would act as a means to better publicise and coordinate what is already done by way of research into the 3Rs. In May 2004, the NC3Rs was announced in the UK to act as a focal point for research into the 3Rs.WEB,weblink Animal welfare: Inter-departmental group on reduction, refinement and replacement, The National Archives, dead,weblink 8 April 2010, 4 May 2024, Although the principles of the 3Rs were implicit in UK law under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986), the Directive 2010/63/EU governing animal use within the European UnionWEB,weblink Directive 2010/63/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes, makes the principles explicit and researchers must demonstrate the use of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement techniques in research involving animals.See also
References
{{reflist}}External links
- W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch, The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique (1959), free digital edition, Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT)
- 3Rs Alternatives: Technologies and Approaches, Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library (USDA)
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