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{{Short description|Health effects of long-term alcohol consumption}}The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount of ethanol consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks,WEB, No level of alcohol consumption is safe for our health,weblink www.who.int, en, but small amounts of alcohol may also have health benefits.JOURNAL, GBD 2020 Alcohol Collaboration, Population-level risks of alcohol consumption by amount, geography, age, sex, and year: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2020, The Lancet, July 2022, 400, 10347, 185–235, 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00847-9, 35843246, 9289789, Chronic heavy drinking (alcohol use disorder) causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.Long-term alcohol consumption is capable of damaging nearly every organ and system in the body.BOOK, Woody, Caan, Jackie de, Belleroche, Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice,weblink registration, 1st, 11 April 2002, Routledge, 978-0-415-27891-1, 19–20, Risks include malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, erectile dysfunction, hypertension, coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, gastritis, stomach ulcers, alcoholic liver disease,JOURNAL, Cargiulo T, Understanding the health impact of alcohol dependence, Am J Health Syst Pharm, 64, 5 Suppl 3, S5–11, March 2007, 17322182, 10.2146/ajhp060647, certain types of dementia, and several types of cancer, including oropharyngeal cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, and female breast cancers.WEB,weblink Alcohol Consumption Increases Risk of Breast and Other Cancers, Doctors Say, Cheryl Platzman Weinstock, Scientific American, 8 November 2017, 13 November 2018, In fact, alcohol consumption is known to increase the risk of several cancers, including head and neck, esophageal, liver, colorectal and female breast cancers., In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system (e.g., painful peripheral neuropathy) can occur from chronic heavy alcohol consumption.JOURNAL, Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM, Neurophysiologic findings in chronic alcohol abuse, de, Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz), 37, 3, 129–132, 1985, 2988001, JOURNAL, Testino G, Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view, Hepatogastroenterology, 55, 82–83, 371–377, 2008, 18613369, There is also an increased risk for accidental injuries, for example, those sustained in traffic accidents and falls. Excessive alcohol consumption can have a negative impact on aging.JOURNAL, Stevenson JS, Alcohol use, misuse, abuse, and dependence in later adulthood, Annu Rev Nurs Res, 23, 245–280, 2005, 16350768, 10.1891/0739-6686.23.1.245, 24586529, The developing adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of alcohol.JOURNAL, Guerri C, Pascual MA, 2010, Mechanisms involved in the neurotoxic, cognitive, and neurobehavioral effects of alcohol consumption during adolescence, Alcohol, 44, 1, 15–26, 10.1016/j.alcohol.2009.10.003, 20113871, In addition, the developing fetal brain is also vulnerable, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) may result if pregnant mothers consume alcohol. Some nations have introduced alcohol packaging warning messages that inform consumers about alcohol and cancer, and about risk of fetal alcohol syndrome for women who drink while pregnant.NEWS, Cancer warning labels to be included on alcohol in Ireland, minister confirms,weblink Belfast Telegraph, en, 26 September 2018, Belfasttelegraph.co.uk, Conversely, light intake of alcohol may have some beneficial effects. The association of alcohol intake with reduced cardiovascular risk has been noted since 1904JOURNAL, Cabot, R.C., The relation of alcohol to arteriosclerosis, Journal of the American Medical Association, 1904, 43, 12, 774–775, 10.1001/jama.1904.92500120002a,weblink and remains even after adjusting for known confounders. Light alcohol intake is also associated with reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, gastritis, and cholelithiasis.JOURNAL, Taylor B, Rehm J, Gmel G, Moderate alcohol consumption and the gastrointestinal tract, Dig Dis, 23, 3–4, 170–176, 2005, 16508280, 10.1159/000090163, 30141003, However, these are only observational studies and high-quality evidence for the beneficial effects of alcohol is nonexistent.JOURNAL, Fekjær, Hans Olav, December 2013, Alcohol—a universal preventive agent? A critical analysis, Addiction, en, 108, 12, 2051–2057, 10.1111/add.12104, 23297738, 0965-2140, free, Alcohol does have psychosocial benefits such as stress reduction, mood elevation, increased sociability, and relaxation, but it is unclear if these outweigh the confirmed increase in the risk of cancer.

Overall effect

File:Alcohol use disorders world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|300px|(Disability-adjusted life year]] for alcohol use disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:{{Div col|small=yes|colwidth=10em}}{{legend|#b3b3b3|No data}}{{legend|#ffff65|Less than 50}}{{legend|#fff200|50–150}} {{legend|#ffdc00|150–250}}{{legend|#ffc600|250–350}}{{legend|#ffb000|350–450}}{{legend|#ff9a00|450–550}}{{legend|#ff8400|550–650}}{{legend|#ff6e00|650–750}}{{legend|#ff5800|750–850}}{{legend|#ff4200|850–950}}{{legend|#ff2c00|950–1050}}{{legend|#cb0000|more than 1050}}{{div col end}})The level of ethanol consumption that minimizes the risk of disease, injury, and death is subject to some controversy.JOURNAL, Tsai, MK, Gao, W, Wen, CP, The relationship between alcohol consumption and health: J-shaped or less is more?, BMC Medicine, 3 July 2023, 21, 1, 228, 10.1186/s12916-023-02911-w, 37400823, 10318728, free, Several studies have found a J-shaped relationship between alcohol consumption and health,JOURNAL, Di Castelnuovo, A., Costanzo, S., Bagnardi, V., Donati, MB., Iacoviello, L., de Gaetano, G., Alcohol dosing and total mortality in men and women: an updated meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies, Arch Intern Med, 166, 22, 2437–45, 10.1001/archinte.166.22.2437, 17159008, 2006, JOURNAL, Stockwell T, Zhao J, Panwar S, Roemer A, Naimi T, Chikritzhs T, Do "Moderate" Drinkers Have Reduced Mortality Risk? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause Mortality, J Stud Alcohol Drugs, 77, 2, 185–198, 2016, 26997174, 4803651, 10.15288/jsad.2016.77.185, JOURNAL, Tian, Y, Liu, J, Zhao, Y, Jiang, N, Liu, X, Zhao, G, Wang, X, Alcohol consumption and all-cause and cause-specific mortality among US adults: prospective cohort study., BMC Medicine, 7 June 2023, 21, 1, 208, 10.1186/s12916-023-02907-6, 37286970, 10249162, free, meaning that risk is minimized at a certain (non-zero) consumption level, and drinking below or above this level increases risk, with the risk level of drinking a large amount of alcohol greater than the risk level of abstinence. Other studies have found a dose-response relationship, with lifetime abstention from alcohol being the optimal strategy and more consumption incurring more risk.JOURNAL, ((GBD 2016 Alcohol Collaboration)), Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016, The Lancet, September 2018, 392, 10152, 1015–1035, 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2, 30146330, 6148333, The studies use different data sets and statistical techniques so cannot be directly compared. Some older studies included former and occasional drinkers in the "abstainers" category, which obscures the benefits of lifetime abstention as former drinkers often are in poor health.JOURNAL, O'Keefe, JH, Bhatti, SK, Bajwa, A, DiNicolantonio, JJ, Lavie, CJ, Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy., Mayo Clinic Proceedings, March 2014, 89, 3, 382–393, 24582196, 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005, free, However, the J-curve was reconfirmed by studies that took the mentioned confounders into account.JOURNAL, Klatsky Arthur L., Udaltsova Natalia, 2007, Alcohol Drinking and Total Mortality Risk, Ann Epidemiol, 17, 5, 555, 10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.01.014, JOURNAL, Lee, SJ., Sudore, RL., Williams, BA., Lindquist, K., Chen, HL., Covinsky, KE., Functional limitations, socioeconomic status, and all-cause mortality in moderate alcohol drinkers, J Am Geriatr Soc, 57, 6, 955–62, Jun 2009, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02184.x, 19473456, 2847409, JOURNAL, Arriola, L., Martinez-Camblor, P., Larrañaga, N., Basterretxea, M., Amiano, P., Moreno-Iribas, C., Carracedo, R., Agudo, A., Ardanaz, E., Alcohol intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in the Spanish EPIC cohort study, Heart, 96, 2, 124–30, Jan 2010, 10.1136/hrt.2009.173419, 19933099, 10125924, free, 10668/316, free, JOURNAL, Holahan, CJ., Schutte, KK., Brennan, PL., Holahan, CK., Moos, BS., Moos, RH., Late-life alcohol consumption and 20-year mortality, Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 34, 11, 1961–71, Nov 2010, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01286.x, 20735372, Nonetheless, some authors remain suspicious that the apparent health benefits of light alcohol use are in large part due to various selection biases and competing risks.JOURNAL, Stockwell, Tim, Zhao, Jinhui, Clay, James, Levesque, Christine, Sanger, Nitika, Sherk, Adam, Naimi, Timothy, Why do only some cohort studies find health benefits from low volume alcohol use? A systematic review and meta-analysis of study characteristics that may bias mortality risk estimates, Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 30 January 2024, 10.15288/jsad.23-00283, 38289182, Mendelian randomization studies have been inconsistent regarding the risk curve, with 3 studies finding linear dose-response risks overall and 2 studies finding a J-shape for lipid profiles. The variance in alcohol consumption that is explained by genetics is small, requiring large sample sizes and potentially violating assumptions of the analysis.JOURNAL, van de Luitgaarden, IAT, van Oort, S, Bouman, EJ, Schoonmade, LJ, Schrieks, IC, Grobbee, DE, van der Schouw, YT, Larsson, SC, Burgess, S, van Ballegooijen, AJ, Onland-Moret, NC, Beulens, JWJ, Alcohol consumption in relation to cardiovascular diseases and mortality: a systematic review of Mendelian randomization studies., European Journal of Epidemiology, July 2022, 37, 7, 655–669, 10.1007/s10654-021-00799-5, 34420153, 9329419, As one reviewer noted, "Despite the wealth of observational data, it is not absolutely clear that alcohol reduces risk, because no randomized controlled trials have been performed."JOURNAL, Vogel, RA, Alcohol, heart disease, and mortality: a review., Rev Cardiovasc Med, 3, 1, 7–13, 2002, 12439349, The NIAAA announced a randomized controlled trial in 2017, but the NIH cancelled it in 2018 due to irregular interactions by the program staff with the alcohol industry.JOURNAL, DeJong, William, The Moderate Alcohol and Cardiovascular Health Trial: Public health advocates should support good science, not undermine it, European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 29 December 2021, 28, 15, e22–e24, 10.1177/2047487320915802, 33611427, JOURNAL, Oppenheimer, Gerald M., Bayer, Ronald, Is Moderate Drinking Protective Against Heart Disease? The Science, Politics and History of a Public Health Conundrum,weblink The Milbank Quarterly, 5 December 2019, 98, 1, 39–56, 10.1111/1468-0009.12437, 31803980, 7077768, A trial in Spain is expected to complete in 2028.JOURNAL, Martínez-González, Miguel A., UNATI - A non-inferiority randomized trial testing an advice of moderate drinking pattern versus advice on abstention on major disease and mortality, CORDIS {{!, European Commission |doi=10.3030/101097681 |url=https://www.unav.edu/documents/16089811/16155256/unati-research-plan.pdf}} Fekjær compares the present situation to those of hormone replacement therapy (HRT), vitamin E, and β-carotene. Similarly to alcohol, observational studies for each of these treatments showed significantly reduced risk of coronary heart disease. However, initial randomized trials of these treatments failed to replicate the effect. For HRT, pooling multiple RCTs and stratifying the data by age and time since menopause showed the benefits were limited to treatment soon after menopause.JOURNAL, El Khoudary, Samar R., Aggarwal, Brooke, Beckie, Theresa M., Hodis, Howard N., Johnson, Amber E., Langer, Robert D., Limacher, Marian C., Manson, JoAnn E., Stefanick, Marcia L., Allison, Matthew A., Menopause Transition and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Implications for Timing of Early Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association, Circulation, 22 December 2020, 142, 25, e506–e532, 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000912, free, 33251828, For vitamin E, trials have shown that the benefits are limited to certain populations such as those with diabetes and a specific genotype.JOURNAL, Vardi, Moshe, Levy, Nina S., Levy, Andrew P., Vitamin E in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: the importance of proper patient selection, Journal of Lipid Research, September 2013, 54, 9, 2307–2314, 10.1194/jlr.R026641, free, 23505320, 3735930, For β-carotene, the randomized trials have shown that β-carotene increases CVD risk when supplemented, with all beneficial effects due to other vitamins in foods providing β-carotene.JOURNAL, Yang, Jiaqi, Zhang, Yulin, Na, Xiaona, Zhao, Ai, β-Carotene Supplementation and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials, Nutrients, 18 March 2022, 14, 6, 1284, 10.3390/nu14061284, free, 35334942, 8950884, In light of the conflicting evidence, many have cautioned against recommendations for the use of alcohol for health benefits. At a symposium in 1997, Peter Anderson labeled such alcohol promotion as "ridiculous and dangerous".JOURNAL, Abdulla S, Is alcohol really good for you?, J R Soc Med, 90, 12, 651, 1997, 9496287, 1296731, 10.1177/014107689709001204, JOURNAL, Naimi TS, Brown DW, Brewer RD, etal, Cardiovascular risk factors and confounders among nondrinking and moderate-drinking U.S. adults, Am J Prev Med, 28, 4, 369–373, 2005, 15831343, 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.01.011, It has been argued that the health benefits from alcohol have been exaggerated by the alcohol industry, with industry participation in the wording of messages and warnings.JOURNAL, Casswell, Sally, April 2013, Vested interests in addiction research and policy. Why do we not see the corporate interests of the alcohol industry as clearly as we see those of the tobacco industry?: Alcohol corporate interests compared with tobacco,weblink Addiction, en, 108, 4, 680–685, 10.1111/add.12011, 23496067, JOURNAL, Sellman, D, Connor, J, Robinson, G, Jackson, R, Alcohol cardio-protection has been talked up., N Z Med J, 122, 1303, 97–101, 2009, 19851424,weblink Considered as a treatment for cardiovascular disease, alcohol is addictive, has greater risk of adverse effects, and is less effective than other interventions such as heart medications, exercise, or good nutrition.JOURNAL, Sinkiewicz, W, Weglarz, M, Alcohol and wine and cardiovascular diseases in epidemiologic studies, Przegl Lek, 66, 5, 233–238, 2009, 19739580, The available evidence is in agreement that current drinking levels are too high. The World Health Organization has emphasized the need to revise alcohol control policies worldwide in order to reduce overall alcohol consumption.

The World

Globally, assuming the J-shaped curve is correct, the age-standardised, both-sexes consumption that minimizes risk is about 5 grams of ethanol per day, and an average individual would cause themselves harm by drinking more than 17 grams per day. However, the average intake among current drinkers in 2016 was approximately 40 grams of ethanol per day.{{efn|Calculated as {{math|(1.5*1.7/0.39+0.9*0.87/0.25)/(1.5+0.9)}}, with figures from {{harvtxt|GBD 2016 Alcohol Collaboration|2018}}. See also WHO figures by country}} Alcohol use accounted for 1.78 million deaths in 2020 and was the leading risk factor for mortality among males aged 15–49 years. 1.03 billion males (35.1% of the male population aged ≥15 years, ~2/3 of male drinkers) and 312 million females (10.5% of the female population aged ≥15 years, ~1/3 of female drinkers) consumed harmful amounts of alcohol.{{efn|The fraction of current drinkers is estimated using WorldBank 2016 population numbers and combining the GBD 2016 and GBD 2020 analyses based on the statement that "Since 1990, the global proportion of drinkers consuming alcohol in excess of the NDE has not changed significantly." For example, GBD 2016 states there were 1.5 billion male current drinkers in 2016, WorldBank states there were 3,770,341,364 males and 1,018,695,045 males under 15, and we can assume based on GBD 2020 that 35.1% of males 15+ were drinking harmful amounts, so we calculate {{math|1= .351*(3770341364-1018695045)/1.5e9≈2/3}}}} The proportion of the population consuming harmful amounts of alcohol has stayed at approximately the same level over the past three decades. Risk is greatest in the population aged 15–39, due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. 3 million deaths each year result from harmful use of alcohol worldwide. This represents 5.3% of all deaths across the globe. Besides this, 5.1% of the global burden of disease and injury is attributable to alcohol, as measured in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by the World Health Organization all as of May 2022.WEB, Alcohol,weblink 2024-03-18, www.who.int, en, Extensive research of Western cultures has consistently shown increased survival associated with light to moderate alcohol consumption.Di Castelnuovo A, Costanzo S, Bagnardi V, Donati MB, Iacoviello L, de Gaetano G. Alcohol dosing and total mortality in men and women: an updated meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies. Arch Intern Med. 2006 Dec 11–25;166(22) 2437-45. One study reported a "safe" drinking limit of up to 100 grams of pure alcohol per week.JOURNAL, Wood AM, Kaptoge S, Butterworth AS, Willeit P, et al, 2018-04-14, Risk thresholds for alcohol consumption: combined analysis of individual-participant data for 599 912 current drinkers in 83 prospective studies, The Lancet, en, 391, 10129, 1513–1523, 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30134-X, 29676281, 5899998, 0140-6736, In contrast to studies of Western cultures, research in other cultures has yielded some opposite findings.

India

A large study of 4465 subjects in India confirmed the possible harm of alcohol consumption on coronary risk in men. Compared to lifetime abstainers, alcohol users had higher blood sugar (2 mg/dl), blood pressure (2 mm Hg) levels, and the HDL-C levels (2 mg/dl) and significantly higher tobacco use (63% vs. 21%). Asian Indians who consume alcohol had a 60% higher risk of heart attack which was greater with local spirits (80%) than branded spirits (50%).JOURNAL, Roy, A., Prabhakaran, D., Jeemon, P., Thankappan, K.R., Mohan, V., Ramakrishnan, L., Joshi, P., Ahmed, F., Mohan, B.V., Saran, R.K., Sinha, N., Reddy, K.S., Impact of alcohol on coronary heart disease in Indian men, Atherosclerosis, 26 February 2010, 210, 2, 531–535, 20226461, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.02.033, The harm was observed in alcohol users classified as occasional as well as regular light, moderate, and heavy consumers.

Russia

One study claims that "excessive alcohol consumption in Russia, particularly by men, has in recent years caused more than half of all the deaths at ages 15–54 years."IARC Alcohol causes more than half of all the premature deaths in Russian adults However, there are some difficulties with this study. For instance, the same study also found a protective effect of heavy drinking on breast cancer mortality. This contradicts the well established scientific view that alcohol increases breast cancer risk.JOURNAL, Tjønneland, A., Christensen, J., Olsen, A., Stripp, C., Thomsen, BL., Overvad, K., Peeters, PH., van Gils, CH., Bueno-de-Mesquita, HB., 8, Alcohol intake and breast cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), Cancer Causes Control, 18, 4, 361–73, May 2007, 10.1007/s10552-006-0112-9, 17364225, 21762284, On this account in further correspondence it was advised that "careful interpretation of mortality statistics in relation to alcohol use is needed, taking into account other relevant risk factors, incidence, and survival."JOURNAL, Soerjomataram, I., de Vries, E., Coebergh, JW., Did alcohol protect against death from breast cancer in Russia?, Lancet, 374, 9694, 975; author reply 975–6, Sep 2009, 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61657-3, 19766875, 46431359, free,

South Asia

The landmark INTERHEART Study has revealed that alcohol consumption in South Asians was not protective against CAD in sharp contrast to other populations who benefit from it.JOURNAL, Joshi, Prashant, Islam, Shofiqul, Pais, Prem, Reddy, Srinath, Dorairaj, Prabhakaran, Kazmi, Khawar, Pandey, Mrigendra Raj, Haque, Sirajul, Mendis, Shanthi, Rangarajan, Sumathy, Yusuf, Salim, Risk Factors for Early Myocardial Infarction in South Asians Compared With Individuals in Other Countries, JAMA, 17 January 2007, 297, 3, 286–294, 17227980, 10.1001/jama.297.3.286,

United Kingdom

A governmental report from Britain has found that "There were 8,724 alcohol-related deaths in 2007, lower than 2006, but more than double the 4,144 recorded in 1991. The alcohol-related death rate was 13.3 per 100,000 population in 2007, compared with 6.9 per 100,000 population in 1991."WEB,weblink Alcohol Deaths: Rates stabilise in the UK, Statistics.gov.uk, 2014-04-22, In Scotland, the NHS estimate that in 2003 one in every 20 deaths could be attributed to alcohol.BBC Alcohol 'kills one in 20 Scots' 30 June 2009 A 2009 report noted that the death rate from alcohol-related disease was 9,000, a number three times that of 25 years previously.Sam Lister The price of alcohol: an extra 6,000 early deaths a year The Times, 19 October 2009A UK report came to the result that the effects of low-to-moderate alcohol consumption on mortality are age-dependent. Low-to-moderate alcohol use increases the risk of death for individuals aged 16–34 (due to increased risk of cancers, accidents, liver disease, and other factors), but decreases the risk of death for individuals ages 55+ (due to decreased risk of ischemic heart disease).WEB, 'Optimal' levels of alcohol consumption for men and women at different ages, and the all-cause mortality attributable to drinking., White IR, Altmann DR, Nanchahal K, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Technical report., 2000,weblink 2014-04-25,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140426232641weblink">weblink 2014-04-26, dead, A study in the United Kingdom found that alcohol causes about 4% of cancer cases in the UK (12,500 cases per year).WEB, Alcohol and cancer,weblink Cancer Research UK, 2013-08-22,

United States

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report, "From 2001–2005, there were approximately 79,000 deaths annually attributable to excessive alcohol use. In fact, excessive alcohol use is the 3rd leading lifestyle-related cause of death for people in the United States each year."Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Alcohol and Public Health A 1993 study estimated US deaths through alcohol at 100,000.JOURNAL, 10.1001/jama.270.18.2207, McGinnis, J. Michael, Foege, William H., 1993, Actual Causes of Death in the United States, JAMA, 270, 18, 2207–2212, 8411605, Another CDC report from 2001 estimated that medium and high consumption of alcohol led to 75,754 deaths in the United States in 2001. Low consumption of alcohol had some beneficial effects, so a net 59,180 deaths were attributed to alcohol.WEB,weblink Alcohol-Attributable Deaths and Years of Potential Life Lost — United States, 2001, 2004-09-24, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Cardiovascular system

Alcohol has been found to have anticoagulant properties.JOURNAL, Mennen LI, Balkau B, Vol S, Cacès E, Eschwège E, Fibrinogen: a possible link between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease? DESIR Study Group, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19, 4, 887–892, 1999, 10195914,weblink 10.1161/01.atv.19.4.887, 2009-01-10, 2013-01-12,weblink" title="archive.today/20130112121432weblink">weblink dead, Thrombosis is lower among moderate drinkers than abstainers.JOURNAL, Pahor M, Guralnik JM, Havlik RJ, et al, Alcohol consumption and risk of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in older persons, J Am Geriatr Soc, 44, 9, 1030–1037, 1996, 8790226, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb02933.x, 11553439, A meta-analysis of randomized trials found that alcohol consumption in moderation decreases serum levels of fibrinogen, a protein that promotes clot formation, while it increases levels of tissue type plasminogen activator, an enzyme that helps dissolve clots.JOURNAL, Rimm, EB, Williams, P, Fosher, K, Criqui, M, Stampfer, MJ, Moderate alcohol intake and lower risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of effects on lipids and haemostatic factors., BMJ, 319, 7224, 1523–1528, 1999, 10591709, 28294, 10.1136/bmj.319.7224.1523, These changes were estimated to reduce coronary heart disease risk by about 24%. Another meta-analysis in 2011 found favorable changes in HDL cholesterol, adiponectin, and fibrinogen associated with moderate alcohol consumption.JOURNAL, Brien Susan E, Ronksley Paul E, Turner Barbara J, Mukamal Kenneth J, Ghali William A, 2011, Effect of alcohol consumption on biological markers associated with risk of coronary heart disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of interventional studies, BMJ, 342, d636, 10.1136/bmj.d636, 21343206, 3043110, A systematic review based on 16,351 participants showed J-shaped curve for the overall relationship between cardiovascular mortality and alcohol intake. Maximal protective effect was shown with 5–10 g of alcohol consumption per day and the effect was significant up to 26 g/day alcohol consumption.JOURNAL, Costanzo S, Di Castelnuovo A, Donati MB, Iacoviello L, de Gaetano G, Alcohol consumption and mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 55, 13, 1339–1347, 2010, 20338495, 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.01.006, Serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a putative marker of inflammation and predictor of CHD (coronary heart disease) risk, are lower in moderate drinkers than in those who abstain from alcohol, suggesting that alcohol consumption in moderation might have anti-inflammatory effects.JOURNAL, Albert, MA, Glynn, RJ, Ridker, PM, Alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of C-reactive protein, Circulation, 107, 3, 443–447, 2003, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000045669.16499.EC, 12551869, 323583, free, JOURNAL, Stewart, SH, Mainous, AG, Gilbert, G, Relation between alcohol consumption and C-reactive protein levels in the adult US population,weblink J Am Board Fam Pract, 15, 6, 437–442, 2002, 12463288, JOURNAL, Imhof, A, Froehlich, M, Brenner, H, Boeing, H, Pepys, MB, Koenig, W., Effect of alcohol consumption on systemic markers of inflammation, Lancet, 357, 9258, 763–767, 2001, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04170-2, 11253971, 8046780, Data from one prospective study suggest that, among men with initially low alcohol consumption (

External links

{{Medical resources

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10}}.1}} Alcohol, Other Drugs, and Health: Current Evidence. Boston University/National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Journal Alcohol is linked to high blood pressure, cancers and heart attack {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201180308weblink |date=2010-12-01 }} (NHS) {{alcohealth}}{{Psychoactive substance use}}