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{{Short description|Subspecies of the Asian elephant}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}{{Use Sri Lankan English|date=October 2022}}{{Subspeciesbox| name = Sri Lankan elephant| status_ref =| image= Srilankan tuskelephant.jpg| image_caption = Male tusker| image2= Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) female and young 7.jpg| image2_caption = Female and juveniles in Yala National Park| genus = Elephas| species = maximus| species_link = Asian elephant| subspecies = maximus| VictoriaRandenigala| 400.8| 40–60

Carl Linnaeus>Linnaeus, 1758| range_map = Elephant Distribution Map Sri Lanka 2015.jpg| range_map_caption = Range of the Sri Lankan elephant}}(File:Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) male head.jpg|thumb|Head of a male without tusks)The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is native to Sri Lanka and one of three recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. It is the type subspecies of the Asian elephant and was first described by Carl Linnaeus under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758.BOOK, Linnaeus, Carl, 1760, Elephas maximus, Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, System of nature through the three kingdoms of nature, according to classes, orders, genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places, 1, Halle an der Saale, Typis et sumtibus Io. Iac. Curt., 33,weblink Latin, The Sri Lankan elephant population is now largely restricted to the dry zone in the north, east and southeast of Sri Lanka. Elephants are present in Udawalawe National Park, Yala National Park, Lunugamvehera National Park, Wilpattu National Park and Minneriya National Park but also live outside protected areas. It is estimated that Sri Lanka has the highest density of elephants in Asia. Human-elephant conflict is increasing due to conversion of elephant habitat to settlements and permanent cultivation.JOURNAL, Fernando, Prithiviraj, Jayewardene, Jayantha, Prasad, Tharaka, Hendavitharana, W., Pastorini, Jennifer, 2011,weblink Current Status of Asian Elephants in Sri Lanka, Gajah, 35, 93–103, 3 September 2013, 1 September 2022,weblink live, Characteristics File:Elephant Herd Yala National Park.jpg|thumb|A herd of elephants in Yala National ParkYala National ParkIn general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level. Females are usually smaller than males. 90% of tuskless males are called makhnas. Some males have tusks.JOURNAL, Jeheskel Shoshani, Shoshani, J., Eisenberg, J. F., 1982, Elephas maximus, Mammalian Species, 182, 1–8, 10.2307/3504045, 3504045, Sri Lankan elephants are the largest subspecies reaching a shoulder height of between {{convert|2|and|3.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}, weigh between {{convert|2000|and|5500|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and have 19 pairs of ribs. Their skin colour is darker than of indicus and of sumatranus with larger and more distinct patches of depigmentation on ears, face, trunk and belly.BOOK, Jeheskel Shoshani, Shoshani, J., 2006, Taxonomy, Classification, and Evolution of Elephants, 3–14, Biology, medicine, and surgery of elephants, Fowler, M. E., Mikota, S. K., Wiley-Blackwell, 0813806763,weblink 4 June 2020, 20 October 2022,weblink live, Only 7% of males bear tusks. Average adult elephant tusks grow up to about 6 feet. It can weight up to {{cvt|35|kg}}.BOOK, Jayewardene, J., 1994, The elephant in Sri Lanka, Colombo, Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Longest tusks of 7 feet 6 inches long was found in Millangoda Raja (1938-30 July 2011).NEWS,weblink 'Longest tusked' elephant in Asia dies in Sri Lanka, Haviland, Charles, 4 August 2011, BBC News, 22 August 2011, 12 August 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110812124855weblink">weblink live, WEB, An elegy to Millangoda Raja,weblink 15 March 2022, archives.dailynews.lk, 20 October 2022,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20221020223556weblink">weblink live, The Sri Lankan subspecies designation is weakly supported by analysis of allozyme loci,JOURNAL, Nozawa, K., Shotake, T., Genetic differentiation among local populations of Asian elephant, Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 27 April 2009, 28, 1, 40–47, 10.1111/j.1439-0469.1990.tb00363.x, free, but not by analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences.JOURNAL, Vidya, T. N. C., Fernando, P., Melnick, D. J., Sukumar, R., 18442650, Population differentiation within and among Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) populations in southern India, Heredity, January 2005, 94, 1, 71–80, 10.1038/sj.hdy.6800568, 15454948, free, JOURNAL, Fernando, Prithiviraj, Vidya, T. N. C, Payne, John, Stuewe, Michael, Davison, Geoffrey, Alfred, Raymond J, Andau, Patrick, Bosi, Edwin, Kilbourn, Annelisa, Melnick, Don J, DNA Analysis Indicates That Asian Elephants Are Native to Borneo and Are Therefore a High Priority for Conservation, PLOS Biology, 18 August 2003, 1, 1, e6, 10.1371/journal.pbio.0000006, 12929206, 176546, free, JOURNAL, Fleischer, Robert C., Perry, Elizabeth A., Muralidharan, Kasinathan, Stevens, Ernest E., Wemmer, Christen M., Phylogeography of the Asian Elephant (Elephas Maximus) Based on Mitochondrial DNA, Evolution, September 2001, 55, 9, 1882–1892, 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00837.x, 11681743, 7223168, free, In July 2013, a dwarf Sri Lankan elephant was sighted in Udawalawe National Park. It was over {{convert|5|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} tall but had shorter legs than usual and was the main aggressor in an encounter with a younger bull.WEB,weblink A Dwarf Elephant With Outsized Attitude, 22 December 2014, WBUR's The Wild Life, en-US, 6 April 2019, 5 April 2019,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190405005836weblink">weblink live, Distribution and habitat Sri Lankan elephants are restricted mostly to the lowlands in the dry zone where they are still fairly widespread in north, south, east, north-western, north-central and south-eastern Sri Lanka. A small remnant population exists in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. They are absent from the wet zone of the country. Apart from Wilpattu and Ruhuna National Parks, all other protected areas are less than {{convert|1000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in extent. Many areas are less than {{convert|50|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, and hence not large enough to encompass the entire home ranges of elephants that use them. In the Mahaweli Development Area, protected areas including Wasgomuwa National Park, Flood Plains National Park, and Somawathiya National Park have been linked, resulting in an overall area of {{convert|1172|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of contiguous habitat for elephants. Nevertheless, about 65% of the elephant's range extends outside protected areas.JOURNAL, Santiapillai, Charles, Fernando, Prithivirai, Gunewardene Manori, 2006,weblink A strategy for the conservation of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka, Gajah, 25, 91–102, 3 March 2011, 29 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131029185729weblink">weblink live, Former range In the historical past, elephants were widely distributed from sea level to the highest mountain ranges. They occurred in the dry zone, in the lowland wet zone as well as in the cold damp montane forests. During the colonial period from 1505 to 1948, the wet zone was converted to commercially used fields and became heavily settled. Until 1830, elephants were so plentiful that their destruction was encouraged by the government, and rewards were paid for any that was killed. In the first half of the 19th century, forests in the montane zone were cleared large-scale for the planting of coffee, and afterward tea. The elephant population in the mountains was extirpated.During the British rule, many bull elephants were killed by trophy hunters. One of the British army majors is credited with having shot over 1,500 elephants, and two others are reputed to have shot half that number each. Many other sportsmen have shot about 250–300 animals during this time.WEB, Jayewardene, J.,weblink Elephants in Sri Lankan History and Culture, Living Heritage Trust, 2012, 2 August 2012, 3 March 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160303235922weblink">weblink live, Between 1829 and 1855 alone, more than 6,000 elephants were captured and shot under order of colonial British Empire.BOOK, Sukumar, R., The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management, 1992, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-43758-5, {{pn|date=August 2020}}By the turn of the 20th century, elephants were still distributed over much of the island. The area currently known as Ruhuna National Park was the Resident Sportsmen's Shooting Reserve, an area reserved for the sporting pleasure of British residents in the country.JOURNAL, Katugaha, H. I. E., 1997,weblink Tuskers of Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, Gajah, 18, 67–68, 2 August 2012, 29 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131029195216weblink">weblink live, In the early 20th century, mega reservoirs were constructed in the dry zone for irrigated agriculture. Ancient irrigation systems were rehabilitated and people resettled. This development gathered momentum after the independence in 1948. As a result, elephant habitat in the dry zone was severely fragmented.BOOK, Fernando, P., 2006, Elephant conservation in Sri Lanka: Integrating scientific information to guide policy, Groom, M. J., Meffe, G. K., Carroll, C. R., Principles of Conservation Biology, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 649–652, 978-0-87893-518-5, Population trend The size of wild elephant populations in Sri Lanka was estimated at: 19,500 in the early 19th century;WEB, Elephants in Sri Lanka,weblink eleaid, 29 August 2015, 26 February 2021,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20210226161939weblink">weblink live, 10,000 in the early 20th century;JOURNAL, Wanigasundara, M., 1991,weblink Sri Lanka – Elephants slaughtered in civil war, Gajah, 6, 16–17, 3 March 2011, 25 July 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110725015752weblink">weblink live, 7,000 to 8,000 in around 1920;{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} between 1,745 and 2,455 individuals in 1969;JOURNAL, Kotagama, S., 1991,weblink Sri Lanka – Enhancing the survival of elephants, Gajah, 6, 24, 3 March 2011, 20 October 2022,weblink live, between 2,500 and 3,435 in 1987; 1,967 in June 1993 that were fragmented in five regions;JOURNAL, Hendavitharana, W., Dissanayake, S., de Silva, M., Santiapillai, C., 1994,weblink The Survey of elephants in Sri Lanka, Gajah, 12, 1–30, 3 March 2011, 25 July 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110725015804weblink">weblink live, between 3,150 and 4,400 in 2000;BOOK, Kemf, E., Santiapillai, C., 2000, Asian elephants in the wild, WWF, Gland, Switzerland, {{pn|date=August 2020}} 3,150 in 2006;{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} 2,900–3,000 in 2007;{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} 5,879 in 2011, on the basis of counting elephants at water holes in the dry season. 7,500 in 2019;NEWS, 11 January 2020, Sri Lanka elephants: 'Record number' of deaths in 2019, en-GB, BBC News,weblink 24 April 2021, 24 April 2021,weblink live, {| class="wikitable sortable"

Wilpattu National Park>Wilpattu| 1,316.9| 100–150

Yala National Park>Ruhuna (Yala)| 1,267.8| 300–350

Gal Oya National Park>Gal Oya| 629.4| 150–200

Maduru Oya National Park>Maduru Oya| 588.5| 150–200

Somawathiya National Park>Somawathiya| 377.6| 50–100

Wasgamuwa National Park>Wasgomuwa| 377.1| 150–200

Madhu Road National Park>Madhu road| 346.8| 100–200

Udawalawe National Park>Udawalawe| 308.2| 150–200

Peak Wilderness Sanctuary>Peak Wilderness| 223.8| 50–60

Flood Plains National Park>Flood Plains| 173.5| 50–100

Sinharaja Forest Reserve>Sinharaja| 88.6| 10–50

Minneriya National Park>MinneriayGiritale| 66.9| 300–400

Bundala National Park>Bundala| 62.1| 80–100

Lahugala Kitulana National Park>LahugalaKitulana| 15.5| 50–100

Ecology and behaviour

(File:Elephant eating Yala Sri Lanka.ogv|thumb|Elephant feeding on grass in Yala National Park (video))File:අලුත් යාලුවෙක්.jpg|thumb|An elephant charging a dog ]]Elephants are classified as megaherbivores and consume up to {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of plant matter per day. As generalists, they feed on a wide variety of food plants. In Sri Lanka's northwestern region, feeding behaviour of elephants was observed during the period of January 1998 to December 1999. The elephants fed on a total of 116 plant species belonging to 35 families including 27 species of cultivated plants. More than half of the plants were non-tree species, i.e. shrub, herb, grass, or climbers. More than 25% of the plant species belonged to the family Leguminosae, and 19% of the plant species belonged to the family of true grasses. The presence of cultivated plants in dung does not result solely due to raiding of crops as it was observed that elephants feed on leftover crop plants in fallow chenas. Juvenile elephants tend to feed predominantly on grass species.JOURNAL, Samansiri, K. A. P., Weerakoon, D. K., 2007,weblink Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka, Gajah, 2, 27–34, 3 March 2011, 18 November 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161118170121weblink">weblink live, Food resources are abundant in regenerating forests, but at low density in mature forests. Traditional slash-and-burn agriculture creates optimum habitat for elephants through promoting successional vegetation.Females and calves generally form small, loosely associated social groups without the hierarchical tier structure exhibited by African bush elephants.JOURNAL, de Silva, Shermin, Wittemyer, George, 17209753, A Comparison of Social Organization in Asian Elephants and African Savannah Elephants, International Journal of Primatology, October 2012, 33, 5, 1125–1141, 10.1007/s10764-011-9564-1, JOURNAL, de Silva, Shermin, Ranjeewa, Ashoka DG, Kryazhimskiy, Sergey, The dynamics of social networks among female Asian elephants, BMC Ecology, 2011, 11, 1, 17, 10.1186/1472-6785-11-17, 21794147, 3199741, free, 2011BMCE...11...17D, However, at some locations such as Minneriya National Park, hundreds of individuals aggregate during the dry season, suggesting that grouping behaviour is flexible and depends on season and place.{{cn|date=November 2017}}Like all Asian elephants, the Sri Lankan subspecies communicates using visual, acoustic and chemical signals. At least fourteen different vocal and acoustic signals have been described, which include some low-frequency calls that contain infrasonic frequencies.JOURNAL, de Silva, Shermin, Acoustic communication in the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus maximus, Behaviour, 2010, 147, 7, 825–852, 10.1163/000579510X495762,

Threats

During the Sri Lankan Civil War, Sri Lankan elephants were maimed or killed by land mines. Between 1990 and 1994, a total of 261 wild elephants died either as a result of gunshot injuries, or were killed by poachers and land mines. Several elephants stepped on land mines and were crippled.JOURNAL, Alahakoon, J., Santiapillai, C., 1997, Elephants: Unwitting victims in Sri Lanka's civil war, Gajah, 18, 63–65,weblink 3 March 2011, 4 March 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160304090017weblink">weblink live, Poaching for ivory is not a major threat, given the rarity of tuskers. Some ivory trade still goes on, particularly in Kandy. Human population growth and demand for land is a greater threat today, and the range of elephants continues to decline as irrigation and development projects lead to the conversion of natural land to irrigated agriculture and settlements.Between 1999 and the end of 2006, nearly 100 wild elephants were killed every year to protect crops and houses. During drought seasons many elephants damage agricultural land for food. Nearly 80 elephants were killed in northwestern Sri Lanka, 50 in south and east and another 30 in other parts of the country, totaling 160 elephant deaths in 2006 alone. Sri Lanka has thus become the country with the highest elephant mortality rate worldwide.WEB, 2020, Sri Lanka ranks as the country which killed the largest number of Elephants in the world – COPA,weblink 11 December 2020, EconomyNext, The Sri Lankan Department of Wildlife Conservation official records showed that 407 elephants were killed in 2019. The next three years after that showed 328, 375, and 439 elephant fatalities, respectively.WEB, 13 December 2020, Sri Lanka records highest elephant deaths in world,weblink 24 April 2021, Hindustan Times, en, 23 April 2021,weblink live, WEB,weblink's%20elephant%20population%20has,2020%20and%20407%20in%202019, 238 elephants killed in Sri Lanka so far this year, more than 1 daily, Efe, 19 July 2023, 3 January 2024, {| class="wikitable"weblink live, 24 April 2021, 24 April 2021,weblink !Year!2010!2011!2012!2013!2014!2015!2016!2017!2018!2019!2020!2021!2022!Total| Deaths| 227| 255| 250| 206| 239| 205| 279| 256| 258| 407| 328| 375| 439| 3724

Conservation

(File:Sri Lanka Elephant Orphanage.jpg|thumb|Elephants at the Elephant Orphanage near Kandy)Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I.IUCN, Elephas maximus, amp, Williams, C., Tiwari, S. K., Goswami, V. R., de Silva, S., Kumar, A., Baskaran, N., Yoganand, K., Menon, V., 2020, e.T7140A45818198, 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en, 15 January 2022, The elephant conservation strategy of the Department of Wildlife Conservation aims at conserving as many viable populations as possible in as wide a range of suitable habitats as is feasible. This means protecting elephants both within the system of protected areas and as many animals outside these areas that the land can support and landholders will accept, and not restricting elephants to the protected area network alone.

• In the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage in Kegalle injured elephants are treated, and orphaned baby elephants cared for. Nearly 70 elephants live here. Captive breeding is also going on.
• The Udawalawe Elephant Transit Centre in Udawalawe National Park is a rehabilitation centre, where orphaned elephant calves are being kept until they can be released into the wild.

Culture and symbolism

{{moresources|date=January 2024}}File:The good luck elephant.jpg|thumb|Sri Lankan elephants at the Esala PeraheraEsala PeraheraElephants were a common element in Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamils heraldry for over two thousand years and remained so through British colonial rule. The coat of arms and the flag of Ceylon Government from 1875 to 1948 included an elephant and even today many institutions use the Sri Lankan elephant in their coat of arms and insignia. An important cultural symbiosis has continued to exist between the elephant and humans for over two thousand years – no religious procession was complete without its retinue of elephants, and many large Buddhist temples and Hindu Temples in Sri Lanka had their own elephants.(File:Millangoda Raja.jpg|thumb|Millangoda Raja, tusker with longest tusks)Since time immemorial, elephants have been domesticated for uses as work elephants and war elephants in Sri Lanka by the ancient kings. Elephants were exported from the island for hundreds of years and into the Portuguese and Dutch colonial era. The British did not export elephants, instead took to hunting wild elephants and capture of wild for domestication as work elephants continued. Elephant Kraals were organised to capture large herds of elephants in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The capture of wild elephants were regulated under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance in 1937, with the issuance of permits to capture of wild elephants. This practice stopped following the last Elephant Kraal in 1950 by Sir Francis Molamure. A census of the domesticated elephant population in 1970 indicated 532 elephants among 378 owners, while this number had dropped 344 in 1982. These domesticated elephants were used mainly as work elephants and for cultural pageants, the chief of which is the annual Kandy Esala Perahera. In recent years, the domesticated elephant population has dropped further with the need for their labour dropping widespread use of tractors. However, they remain in use in terrain inaccessible by vehicles for logging and used for tourism. Ownership of elephants are highly prestigious among Singhalese as a status symbol and calls have been made for permission to capture wild elephants or release of orphaned wild elephants in government care to Temples to take part in pageants. Captive breeding in private ownership does not take place due to the long period of unemployability associated with it.WEB, Jayewardene, Jayantha, The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka,weblink fao.org, Food and Agriculture Organization, 14 September 2021, 25 August 2021,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20210825233430weblink">weblink live, Legal reforms pertaining to the captive elephant population was introduced in 2021, just as a landmark case into dozens of calves being stolen from their herds in a ten-year period collapsed with the Attorney General's Department dropping charges and releasing the elephants to their former owners.NEWS, Gu, Vanessa, Sri Lanka prohibits handlers from 'drunk driving' on elephants, bans putting baby elephants to work,weblink 14 September 2021, insider.com, 20 October 2022,weblink live, {{Clear}}

See also

• Sri Lankan ivories
• List of mammals of Sri Lanka

References

{{Reflist}}

External links

{{Commons-inline|Elephas maximus maximus}}{{Elephants}}{{Proboscidea}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q583372}}