Real number
In
mathematics, the
real numbers may be described informally in several different ways. The real numbers include both
rational numbers, such as 42 and −23/129, and
irrational numbers, such as
pi and the
square root of two; or, a real number can be given by an infinite
decimal representation, such as 2.4871773339...., where the digits continue in some way; or, the real numbers may be thought of as points on an infinitely long
number line.These descriptions of the real numbers, while intuitively accessible, are not sufficiently rigorous for the purposes of pure mathematics. The discovery of a suitably rigorous definition of the real numbers — indeed, the realisation that a better definition was needed — was one of the most important developments of 19th century mathematics. Popular definitions in use today include
equivalence classes of
Cauchy sequences of rational numbers;
Dedekind cuts; a more sophisticated version of "decimal representation"; and an axiomatic definition of the real numbers as the unique
complete Archimedean ordered field. These definitions are all described in detail below.The term "real number" is a
retronym coined in response to "
imaginary number".{{Fact|date=August 2008}}
Basic properties
A real number may be either
rational or
irrational; either
algebraic or
transcendental; and either
positive,
negative, or
zero.Real numbers measure
continuous quantities. They may in theory be expressed by
decimal representations that have an infinite sequence of digits to the right of the decimal point; these are often represented in the same form as 324.823122147... The
ellipsis (three dots) indicate that there would still be more digits to come.More formally, real numbers have the two basic properties of being an
ordered field, and having the
least upper bound property. The first says that real numbers comprise a
field, with addition and multiplication as well as division by nonzero numbers, which can be
totally ordered on a number line in a way compatible with addition and multiplication. The second says that if a nonempty set of real numbers has an
upper bound, then it has a
least upper bound. These two together define the real numbers completely, and allow its other properties to be deduced. For instance, we can prove from these properties that every polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has a real root, and that if you add the square root of −1 to the real numbers, obtaining the
complex numbers, the result is
algebraically closed.
Uses
Measurements in the
physical sciences are almost always conceived of as approximations to real numbers. While the numbers used for this purpose are generally
decimal fractions representing rational numbers, writing them in decimal terms suggests they are an approximation to a theoretical underlying real number.A real number is said to be
computable if there exists an
algorithm that yields its digits. Because there are only
countably many algorithms, but an uncountable number of reals, most real numbers are not computable. Some
constructivists accept the existence of only those reals that are computable. The set of
definable numbers is broader, but still only countable.
Computers can only approximate most real numbers. Most commonly, they can represent a certain subset of the rationals exactly, via either
floating point numbers or
fixed-point numbers, and these rationals are used as an approximation for other nearby real values.
Arbitrary-precision arithmetic is a method to represent arbitrary rational numbers, limited only by available
memory, but more commonly one uses a fixed number of
bits of precision determined by the size of the
processor registers. In addition to these rational values,
computer algebra systems are able to treat many (countable) irrational numbers exactly by storing an algebraic description (such as "sqrt(2)") rather than their rational approximation. Note that a few programming languages, such as
AppleScript, use "real" to describe their main numeric
data type.{{anchor|R}}Mathematicians use the symbol
R (or alternatively,
BbbR
, the letter "
R" in
blackboard bold, Unicode ℝ) to represent the
set of all real numbers. The
notation Rn refers to an
n-
dimensional space with real coordinates; for example, a value from
R3 consists of three real numbers and specifies a location in 3-dimensional space.In mathematics, real is used as an adjective, meaning that the underlying field is the field of real numbers. For example
real matrix,
real polynomial and
real Lie algebra. As a substantive, the term is used almost strictly in reference to the real numbers, themselves (e.g., The "set of all reals").
History
Vulgar fractions had been used by the
Egyptians around 1000 BC; the
Vedic "
Sulba Sutras" ("rule of chords" in
Sanskrit), ca. 600 BC, include what may be the first 'use' of
irrational numbers{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.Around 500 BC, the
Greek mathematicians led by
Pythagoras realized the need for
irrational numbers, in particular the irrationality of the
square root of two.In the 18th and 19th centuries there was much work on
irrational and
transcendental numbers.
Lambert (1761) gave the first flawed proof that π cannot be rational,
Legendre (1794) completed the proof, and showed that π is not the square root of a rational number.
Ruffini (1799) and
Abel (1842) both constructed proofs of
Abel–Ruffini theorem: that the general
quintic or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula involving only arithmetical operations and roots.
Évariste Galois (1832) developed techniques for determining whether a given equation could be solved by radicals which gave rise to the field of
Galois theory.
Joseph Liouville (1840) showed that neither
e nor
e2 can be a root of an integer
quadratic equation, and then established existence of transcendental numbers, the proof being subsequently displaced by Georg Cantor (1873).
Charles Hermite (1873) first proved that
e is transcendental, and
Ferdinand von Lindemann (1882), showed that π is transcendental. Lindemann's proof was much simplified by Weierstrass (1885), still further by
David Hilbert (1893), and has finally been made elementary by
Hurwitz and
Paul Albert Gordan.The development of
calculus in the 1700s used the entire set of real numbers without having defined them cleanly. The first rigorous definition was given by
Georg Cantor in 1871. In 1874 he showed that the set of all real numbers is
uncountably infinite but the set of all
algebraic numbers is
countably infinite. Contrary to widely held beliefs, his method was not his famous
diagonal argument, which he published in 1891.
Definition
Construction from the rational numbers
The real numbers can be constructed as a completion of the rational numbers in such a way that a sequence defined by a decimal or binary expansion like {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415,...}
converges to a unique real number. For details and other constructions of real numbers, see
construction of real numbers.
Axiomatic approach
Let
R denote the
set of all real numbers. Then:
The last property is what differentiates the reals from the
rationals. For example, the set of rationals with square less than 2 has a rational upper bound (e.g., 1.5) but no rational least upper bound, because the
square root of 2 is not rational.The real numbers are uniquely specified by the above properties. More precisely, given any two Dedekind-complete ordered fields
R1 and
R2, there exists a unique field
isomorphism from
R1 to
R2, allowing us to think of them as essentially the same mathematical object.For another axiomatization of
R, see
Tarski's axiomatization of the reals.
Properties
Completeness
The main reason for introducing the reals is that the reals contain all
limits. More technically, the reals are
complete (in the sense of
metric spaces or
uniform spaces, which is a different sense than the Dedekind completeness of the order in the previous section). This means the following:A
sequence (
xn) of real numbers is called a
Cauchy sequence if for any ε > 0 there exists an integer
N (possibly depending on ε) such that the
distance |
xn −
xm| is less than ε for all
n and
m that are both greater than
N. In other words, a sequence is a
Cauchy sequence if its elements
xn eventually come and remain arbitrarily close to each other.A sequence (
xn)
converges to the limit x if for any ε > 0 there exists an integer
N (possibly depending on ε) such that the distance |
xn −
x| is less than ε provided that
n is greater than
N. In other words, a sequence has limit
x if its elements eventually come and remain arbitrarily close to
x.It is easy to see that every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence. An important fact about the real numbers is that the converse is also true:
Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers is convergent.
That is, the reals are complete.Note that the rationals are not complete. For example, the sequence (1, 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.41421, ...) is Cauchy but it does not converge to a rational number. (In the real numbers, in contrast, it converges to the
square root of 2.)The existence of limits of Cauchy sequences is what makes
calculus work and is of great practical use. The standard numerical test to determine if a sequence has a limit is to test if it is a Cauchy sequence, as the limit is typically not known in advance.For example, the standard series of the
exponential function
mathrmex = Σn=0&∈f∈; xn/n
converges to a real number because for every
x the sums
can be made arbitrarily small by choosing
N sufficiently large. This proves that the sequence is Cauchy, so we know that the sequence converges even if the limit is not known in advance.
"The complete ordered field"
The real numbers are often described as "the complete ordered field", a phrase that can be interpreted in several ways.First, an order can be
lattice-complete. It is easy to see that no ordered field can be lattice-complete, because it can have no largest element (given any element
z,
z + 1 is larger), so this is not the sense that is meant.Additionally, an order can be
Dedekind-complete, as defined in the section
Axioms. The uniqueness result at the end of that section justifies using the word "the" in the phrase "complete ordered field" when this is the sense of "complete" that is meant. This sense of completeness is most closely related to the construction of the reals from Dedekind cuts, since that construction starts from an ordered field (the rationals) and then forms the Dedekind-completion of it in a standard way.These two notions of completeness ignore the field structure. However, an
ordered group (in this case, the additive group of the field) defines a
uniform structure, and uniform structures have a notion of
completeness (topology); the description in the section
Completeness above is a special case. (We refer to the notion of completeness in uniform spaces rather than the related and better known notion for
metric spaces, since the definition of metric space relies on already having a characterisation of the real numbers.) It is not true that
R is the
only uniformly complete ordered field, but it is the only uniformly complete
Archimedean field, and indeed one often hears the phrase "complete Archimedean field" instead of "complete ordered field". Since it can be proved that any uniformly complete Archimedean field must also be Dedekind-complete (and vice versa, of course), this justifies using "the" in the phrase "the complete Archimedean field". This sense of completeness is most closely related to the construction of the reals from Cauchy sequences (the construction carried out in full in this article), since it starts with an Archimedean field (the rationals) and forms the uniform completion of it in a standard way.But the original use of the phrase "complete Archimedean field" was by
David Hilbert, who meant still something else by it. He meant that the real numbers form the
largest Archimedean field in the sense that every other Archimedean field is a subfield of
R. Thus
R is "complete" in the sense that nothing further can be added to it without making it no longer an Archimedean field. This sense of completeness is most closely related to the construction of the reals from
surreal numbers, since that construction starts with a proper class that contains every ordered field (the surreals) and then selects from it the largest Archimedean subfield.
Advanced properties
The reals are
uncountable; that is, there are strictly more real numbers than
natural numbers, even though both sets are
infinite. In fact, the
cardinality of the reals equals that of the set of subsets (i.e., the power set) of the natural numbers, and
Cantor's diagonal argument states that the latter set's cardinality is strictly bigger than the cardinality of
N. Since only a countable set of real numbers can be
algebraic,
almost all real numbers are
transcendental. The non-existence of a subset of the reals with cardinality strictly between that of the integers and the reals is known as the
continuum hypothesis. The continuum hypothesis can neither be proved nor be disproved; it is
independent from the
axioms of set theory.The real numbers form a
metric space: the distance between
x and
y is defined to be the
absolute value |
x −
y|. By virtue of being a
totally ordered set, they also carry an
order topology; the
topology arising from the metric and the one arising from the order are identical. The reals are a
contractible (hence
connected and
simply connected),
separable metric space of
dimension 1, and are
everywhere dense. The real numbers are
locally compact but not
compact. There are various properties that uniquely specify them; for instance, all unbounded, connected, and separable
order topologies are necessarily
homeomorphic to the reals.Every nonnegative real number has a
square root in
R, and no negative number does. This shows that the order on
R is determined by its algebraic structure. Also, every polynomial of odd degree admits at least one real root: these two properties make
R the premier example of a
real closed field. Proving this is the first half of one proof of the
fundamental theorem of algebra.The reals carry a canonical
measure, the
Lebesgue measure, which is the
Haar measure on their structure as a
topological group normalised such that the
unit interval [0,1] has measure 1.The supremum axiom of the reals refers to subsets of the reals and is therefore a second-order logical statement. It is not possible to characterize the reals with
first-order logic alone: the
Löwenheim-Skolem theorem implies that there exists a countable dense subset of the real numbers satisfying exactly the same sentences in first order logic as the real numbers themselves. The set of
hyperreal numbers satisfies the same first order sentences as
R. Ordered fields that satisfy the same first-order sentences as
R are called
nonstandard models of
R. This is what makes
nonstandard analysis work; by proving a first-order statement in some nonstandard model (which may be easier than proving it in
R), we know that the same statement must also be true of
R.
Generalizations and extensions
The real numbers can be generalized and extended in several different directions:
- The complex numbers contain solutions to all polynomial equations and hence are an algebraically closed field unlike the real numbers. However, the complex numbers are not an ordered field.
- The affinely extended real number system adds two elements +∞ and −∞. It is a compact space. It is no longer a field, not even an additive group; it still has a total order; moreover, it is a complete lattice.
- The real projective line adds only one value ∞. It is also a compact space. Again, it is no longer a field, not even an additive group. However, it allows division of a non-zero element by zero. It is not ordered anymore.
- The long real line pastes together ℵ1 + ℵ1 copies of the real line plus a single point (here ℵ1 denotes the reversed ordering of ℵ1) to create an ordered set that is "locally" identical to the real numbers, but somehow longer; for instance, there is an order-preserving embedding of ℵ1 in the long real line but not in the real numbers. The long real line is the largest ordered set that is complete and locally Archimedean. As with the previous two examples, this set is no longer a field or additive group.
- Ordered fields extending the reals are the hyperreal numbers and the surreal numbers; both of them contain infinitesimal and infinitely large numbers and thus are not Archimedean.
- Self-adjoint operators on a Hilbert space (for example, self-adjoint square complex matrices) generalize the reals in many respects: they can be ordered (though not totally ordered), they are complete, all their eigenvalues are real and they form a real associative algebra. Positive-definite operators correspond to the positive reals and normal operators correspond to the complex numbers.
"Reals" in set theory
In
set theory, specifically
descriptive set theory the
Baire space is used as a surrogate for the real numbers since the latter have some topological properties (connectedness) that are a technical inconvenience. Elements of Baire space are referred to as "reals".
See also
References
- Georg Cantor, 1874, "Über eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen", Journal für die Reine und Angewandte Mathematik, volume 77, pages 258-262.
- Robert Katz, 1964, Axiomatic Analysis, D. C. Heath and Company.
- Edmund Landau, 2001, ISBN 082182693X, Foundations of Analysis, American Mathematical Society.
External links
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