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Hexadecimal
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{{Short description|Base-16 numerical system}}{{Redirect|Sexadecimal|base 60|Sexagesimal}}{{Redirect|Hex digit|binary coded hexadecimals|Nibble}}{{Redirect|Hex format|hexadecimal file formats|Hex file (disambiguation)}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020|cs1-dates=y}}{{Numeral systems}}In mathematics and computing, the hexadecimal (also base-16 or simply hex) numeral system is a positional numeral system that represents numbers using a radix (base) of sixteen. Unlike the decimal system representing numbers using ten symbols, hexadecimal uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols “0“–“9” to represent values 0 to 9, and “A“–“F” (or alternatively “a“–“f“) to represent values from ten to fifteen.Software developers and system designers widely use hexadecimal numbers because they provide a human-friendly representation of binary-coded values. Each hexadecimal digit represents four bits (binary digits), also known as a nibble (or nybble).NEWS, The hexadecimal system,www.ionos.co.uk/digitalguide/server/know-how/hexadecimal-system/, 2022-08-26, Ionos Digital Guide, en, 2022-08-26,web.archive.org/web/20220826084201/https://www.ionos.co.uk/digitalguide/server/know-how/hexadecimal-system/, live, For example, an 8-bit byte can have values ranging from {{mono|00000000}} to {{mono|11111111}} (0 to 255 decimal) in binary form, which can be conveniently represented as {{mono|00}} to {{mono|FF}} in hexadecimal.In mathematics, a subscript is typically used to specify the base. For example, the decimal value {{val|{{#invoke:random|number|65535|same=yes}}|fmt=commas}} would be expressed in hexadecimal as {{hexadecimal|{{#invoke:random|number|65535|same=yes}}}}. In programming, several notations denote hexadecimal numbers, usually involving a prefix. The prefix 0x is used in C, which would denote this value as 0x{{hexadecimal|{{#invoke:random|number|65535|same=yes}}|no}}.Hexadecimal is used in the transfer encoding Base 16, in which each byte of the plain text is broken into two 4-bit values and represented by two hexadecimal digits.

Representation

Written representation

In most current use cases, the letters A–F or a–f represent the values 10–15, while the numerals 0–9 are used to represent their decimal values.There is no universal convention to use lowercase or uppercase, so each is prevalent or preferred in particular environments by community standards or convention; even mixed case is used. Some Seven-segment displays use mixed-case ‘A b C d E F’ to distinguish the digits A–F from one another and from 0–9.There is some standardization of using spaces (rather than commas or another punctuation mark) to separate hex values in a long list. For instance, in the following hex dump, each 8-bit byte is a 2-digit hex number, with spaces between them, while the 32-bit offset at the start is an 8-digit hex number.

Distinguishing from decimal

In contexts where the base is not clear, hexadecimal numbers can be ambiguous and confused with numbers expressed in other bases. There are several conventions for expressing values unambiguously. A numerical subscript (itself written in decimal) can give the base explicitly: 15910 is decimal 159; 15916 is hexadecimal 159, which equals 34510. Some authors prefer a text subscript, such as 159decimal and 159hex, or 159d and 159h.Donald Knuth introduced the use of a particular typeface to represent a particular radix in his book The TeXbook.BOOK, Knuth, Donald Ervin,www.worldcat.org/oclc/12973034, The TeXbook, 1986, Duane Bibby, 0-201-13447-0, Reading, Mass., 12973034, 2022-03-15, 2022-01-16,www.worldcat.org/oclc/12973034," title="web.archive.org/web/20220116012119www.worldcat.org/oclc/12973034,">web.archive.org/web/20220116012119www.worldcat.org/oclc/12973034, live, Hexadecimal representations are written there in a typewriter typeface: {{mono|5A3}}, {{mono|C1F27ED}}In linear text systems, such as those used in most computer programming environments, a variety of methods have arisen:

Syntax that is always Hex

Sometimes the numbers are known to be Hex.

Other symbols for 10–15 and mostly different symbol sets

The use of the letters A through F to represent the digits above 9 was not universal in the early history of computers. File:Table_de_correspondance_entre_le_Bibinaire_et_les_autres_notations.svg|thumb|Bibi-binaryBibi-binary
missing image!
- Bruce Martin hexadecimal notation proposal.png -
Bruce Alan Martin’s hexadecimal notation proposal
(File:Base-16 digits.svg|thumb|Ronald O. Whitaker’s hexadecimal notation proposal.)

Verbal and digital representations

Since there were no traditional numerals to represent the quantities from ten to fifteen, alphabetic letters were re-employed as a substitute. Most European languages lack non-decimal-based words for some of the numerals eleven to fifteen. Some people read hexadecimal numbers digit by digit, like a phone number, or using the NATO phonetic alphabet, the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet, or a similar ad-hoc system. In the wake of the adoption of hexadecimal among IBM System/360 programmers, Magnuson (1968) suggested a pronunciation guide that gave short names to the letters of hexadecimal – for instance, “A” was pronounced “ann”, B “bet”, C “chris”, etc.MAGAZINE, Magnuson, Robert A., A hexadecimal pronunciation guide, Datamation, January 1968, 14, 1, 45, Another naming-system was published online by Rogers (2007)WEB, S.R., Rogers, 2007, Hexadecimal number words, Intuitor, en-US,www.intuitor.com/hex/words.html, 2019-08-26, 2019-09-17,www.intuitor.com/hex/words.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20190917015855www.intuitor.com/hex/words.html,">web.archive.org/web/20190917015855www.intuitor.com/hex/words.html, live, that tries to make the verbal representation distinguishable in any case, even when the actual number does not contain numbers A–F. Examples are listed in the tables below. Yet another naming system was elaborated by Babb (2015), based on a joke in Silicon Valley.WEB, Tim, Babb, 2015,www.bzarg.com/p/how-to-pronounce-hexadecimal/, How to pronounce hexadecimal, Bzarg, en-US, 2021-01-01, 2020-11-11,web.archive.org/web/20201111174319/https://www.bzarg.com/p/how-to-pronounce-hexadecimal/, live, Others have proposed using the verbal Morse Code conventions to express four-bit hexadecimal digits, with “dit” and “dah” representing zero and one, respectively, so that “0000” is voiced as “dit-dit-dit-dit” (....), dah-dit-dit-dah (-..-) voices the digit with a value of nine, and “dah-dah-dah-dah” (----) voices the hexadecimal digit for decimal 15.(File:Hexadecimal-counting.jpg|right|thumb|Hexadecimal finger-counting scheme)Systems of counting on digits have been devised for both binary and hexadecimal. Arthur C. Clarke suggested using each finger as an on/off bit, allowing finger counting from zero to 102310 on ten fingers.BOOK, Clarke, Arthur, Pohl, Frederik, The Last Theorem,archive.org/details/lasttheorem00clar, registration, 2008, Ballantine, 978-0007289981, 91, Another system for counting up to FF16 (25510) is illustrated on the right.{| class=“wikitable” style="display: inline-table; margin-right: 50px;; text-align:right;“|+ Magnuson (1968)naming method! Number !! Pronunciation
| ann
| bet
| chris
| dot
| ernest
| frost
| annteen
| annty
| fifty-bet
| annty christeen
| annteen dotty
| thirty-ann seventy-dot
{| class=“wikitable” style="display: inline-table; margin-right: 50px;; text-align:right;“|+ Rogers (2007) naming method! Number !! Pronunciation
| ten
| eleven
| twelve
| draze
| eptwin
| fim
| tex
| oneteek
| fimteek
| fiftek
| twelftek
| hundrek
| thousek
| thirtek-eptwin
| eptek-one
| twelve-hundrek-fourtek-ten
| one-thousek-seven--hundrek-fourtek-three

Signs

The hexadecimal system can express negative numbers the same way as in decimal: −2A to represent −4210, −B01D9 to represent −72136910 and so on.Hexadecimal can also be used to express the exact bit patterns used in the processor, so a sequence of hexadecimal digits may represent a signed or even a floating-point value. This way, the negative number −4210 can be written as FFFF FFD6 in a 32-bit CPU register (in two’s-complement), as C228 0000 in a 32-bit FPU register or C045 0000 0000 0000 in a 64-bit FPU register (in the IEEE floating-point standard).

Hexadecimal exponential notation

Just as decimal numbers can be represented in exponential notation, so too can hexadecimal numbers. P notation uses the letter P (or p, for “power“), whereas E (or e) serves a similar purpose in decimal E notation. The number after the P is decimal and represents the binary exponent. Increasing the exponent by 1 multiplies by 2, not 16: {{mono|1=20p0 = 10p1 = 8p2 = 4p3 = 2p4 = 1p5}}. Usually, the number is normalized so that the hexadecimal digits start with {{mono|1.}} (zero is usually {{mono|0}} with no P).Example: {{mono|1.3DEp42}} represents {{math|1.3DE16 × 24210}}.P notation is required by the IEEE 754-2008 binary floating-point standard, and can be used for floating-point literals in the C99 edition of the C programming language.WEB,www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=29237, ISO/IEC 9899:1999 – Programming languages – C, Iso.org, ISO, 2011-12-08, 2014-04-08, 2016-10-10,www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=29237," title="web.archive.org/web/20161010112929www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=29237,">web.archive.org/web/20161010112929www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=29237, live, Using the %a or %A conversion specifiers, this notation can be produced by implementations of the printf family of functions following the C99 specificationWEB, Rationale for International Standard – Programming Languages – C, 5.10, April 2003, 52, 153–154, 159,www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/C99RationaleV5.10.pdf, Open Standards, 2010-10-17, live,www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/C99RationaleV5.10.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160606072228www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/C99RationaleV5.10.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160606072228www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/C99RationaleV5.10.pdf, 2016-06-06, andSingle Unix Specification (IEEE Std 1003.1) POSIX standard.WEB, dprintf, fprintf, printf, snprintf, sprintf – print formatted output, The Open Group Base Specifications, Issue 7, IEEE Std 1003.1, 2013, 2013, 2001, The IEEE and The Open Group,pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/functions/printf.html, 2016-06-21, live,pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/functions/printf.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160621211105pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/functions/printf.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160621211105pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/functions/printf.html, 2016-06-21,

Conversion

Binary conversion

File:Hewlett-Packard Model HP-16C Programmable RPN Calculator, HP’s First and Only Calculator esp. for Programmers, built 1982-1989 (edited to rectangular, V2).jpg|thumb|The programmable RPN-calculator HP-16C Computer Scientist from 1982 was designed for programmers. One of its key features was the conversion between different numeral systems (note hex number in display).]] Most computers manipulate binary data, but it is difficult for humans to work with a large number of digits for even a relatively small binary number. Although most humans are familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal because each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (410).This example converts 11112 to base ten. Since each position in a binary numeral can contain either a 1 or a 0, its value may be easily determined by its position from the right:
  • 00012 = 110
  • 00102 = 210
  • 01002 = 410
  • 10002 = 810
Therefore:{|
| = 810 + 410 + 210 + 110
| = 1510
With little practice, mapping 11112 to F16 in one step becomes easy: see table in written representation. The advantage of using hexadecimal rather than decimal increases rapidly with the size of the number. When the number becomes large, conversion to decimal is very tedious. However, when mapping to hexadecimal, it is trivial to regard the binary string as 4-digit groups and map each to a single hexadecimal digit.This example shows the conversion of a binary number to decimal, mapping each digit to the decimal value, and adding the results.{|| = 26214410 + 6553610 + 3276810 + 1638410 + 819210 + 204810 + 51210 + 25610 + 6410 + 1610 + 210
| = 38792210
Compare this to the conversion to hexadecimal, where each group of four digits can be considered independently, and converted directly:{|
|00102
5 align=“center” B align=“center” 216
5EB5216
The conversion from hexadecimal to binary is equally direct.BOOK, Digital Design – With an Introduction to the Verilog HDL, Fifth, Mano, M. Morris, Ciletti, Michael D., Pearson Education, 2013, 6, 8–10, 978-0-13-277420-8,

Other simple conversions

Although quaternary (base 4) is little used, it can easily be converted to and from hexadecimal or binary. Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to a pair of quaternary digits and each quaternary digit corresponds to a pair of binary digits. In the above example 5 E B 5 216 = 11 32 23 11 024.The octal (base 8) system can also be converted with relative ease, although not quite as trivially as with bases 2 and 4. Each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits, rather than four. Therefore, we can convert between octal and hexadecimal via an intermediate conversion to binary followed by regrouping the binary digits in groups of either three or four.

Division-remainder in source base

As with all bases there is a simple algorithm for converting a representation of a number to hexadecimal by doing integer division and remainder operations in the source base. In theory, this is possible from any base, but for most humans only decimal and for most computers only binary (which can be converted by far more efficient methods) can be easily handled with this method.Let d be the number to represent in hexadecimal, and the series hihi−1...h2h1 be the hexadecimal digits representing the number.
  1. i ← 1
  2. hi ← d mod 16
  3. d ← (d − hi) / 16
  4. If d = 0 (return series hi) else increment i and go to step 2
“16” may be replaced with any other base that may be desired.The following is a JavaScript implementation of the above algorithm for converting any number to a hexadecimal in String representation. Its purpose is to illustrate the above algorithm. To work with data seriously, however, it is much more advisable to work with bitwise operators.function toHex(d) {
var r = d % 16;
if (d - r == 0) {
return toChar(r);
}
return toHex((d - r) / 16) + toChar(r);
}function toChar(n) {
const alpha = “0123456789ABCDEF”;
return alpha.charAt(n);
}

Conversion through addition and multiplication

Image:Hexadecimal multiplication table.svg|right|thumb|A hexadecimal multiplication tablemultiplication tableIt is also possible to make the conversion by assigning each place in the source base the hexadecimal representation of its place value — before carrying out multiplication and addition to get the final representation.For example, to convert the number B3AD to decimal, one can split the hexadecimal number into its digits: B (1110), 3 (310), A (1010) and D (1310), and then get the final result by multiplying each decimal representation by 16p (p being the corresponding hex digit position, counting from right to left, beginning with 0). In this case, we have that:{{math|B3AD {{=}} (11 × 163) + (3 × 162) + (10 × 161) + (13 × 160)}}which is 45997 in base 10.

Tools for conversion

Many computer systems provide a calculator utility capable of performing conversions between the various radices frequently including hexadecimal.In Microsoft Windows, the Calculator utility can be set to Programmer mode, which allows conversions between radix 16 (hexadecimal), 10 (decimal), 8 (octal) and 2 (binary), the bases most commonly used by programmers. In Programmer Mode, the on-screen numeric keypad includes the hexadecimal digits A through F, which are active when “Hex” is selected. In hex mode, however, the Windows Calculator supports only integers.

Elementary arithmetic

Elementary operations such as division can be carried out indirectly through conversion to an alternate numeral system, such as the commonly-used decimal system or the binary system where each hex digit corresponds to four binary digits.Alternatively, one can also perform elementary operations directly within the hex system itself — by relying on its addition/multiplication tables and its corresponding standard algorithms such as long division and the traditional subtraction algorithm.

Real numbers

Rational numbers

As with other numeral systems, the hexadecimal system can be used to represent rational numbers, although repeating expansions are common since sixteen (1016) has only a single prime factor: two.For any base, 0.1 (or “1/10“) is always equivalent to one divided by the representation of that base value in its own number system. Thus, whether dividing one by two for binary or dividing one by sixteen for hexadecimal, both of these fractions are written as 0.1. Because the radix 16 is a perfect square (42), fractions expressed in hexadecimal have an odd period much more often than decimal ones, and there are no cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits). Recurring digits are exhibited when the denominator in lowest terms has a prime factor not found in the radix; thus, when using hexadecimal notation, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two result in an infinite string of recurring digits (such as thirds and fifths). This makes hexadecimal (and binary) less convenient than decimal for representing rational numbers since a larger proportion lie outside its range of finite representation.All rational numbers finitely representable in hexadecimal are also finitely representable in decimal, duodecimal and sexagesimal: that is, any hexadecimal number with a finite number of digits also has a finite number of digits when expressed in those other bases. Conversely, only a fraction of those finitely representable in the latter bases are finitely representable in hexadecimal. For example, decimal 0.1 corresponds to the infinite recurring representation 0.1{{overline|9}} in hexadecimal. However, hexadecimal is more efficient than duodecimal and sexagesimal for representing fractions with powers of two in the denominator. For example, 0.062510 (one-sixteenth) is equivalent to 0.116, 0.0912, and 0;3,4560.{|class=“wikitable“! rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:bottom;” | n! colspan=“3” | DecimalPrime factors of: base, b = 10: {{color|#920000|2}}, {{color|#920000|5}};b − 1 = 9: {{color|#000092|3}}! colspan=“3” | HexadecimalPrime factors of: base, b = 16{{sub|10}} = 10: {{color|#920000|2}}; b − 1 = 15{{sub|10}} = F: {{color|#000092|3, 5}}! Reciprocal! Prime factors! Positional representation(decimal)! Positional representation(hexadecimal)! Prime factors! Reciprocal
| 2
1/2 {{color2}}| 0.5| 0.8 {{color2}} 1/2
| 3
1/3 {{color3}} 0.3333... = 0.{{overline|3}} 0.5555... = 0.{{overline|5}} {{color3}} 1/3
| 4
1/4 {{color2}}| 0.25| 0.4 {{color2}} 1/4
| 5
1/5 {{color5}}| 0.2 0.{{overline|3}} {{color5}} 1/5
| 6
1/6 {{color2}}, {{color3}} 0.1{{overline|6}} 0.2{{overline|A}} {{color2}}, {{color3}} 1/6
| 7
1/7 7 0.{{overline|142857}} 0.{{overline|249}} 7 1/7
| 8
1/8 {{color2}}| 0.125| 0.2 {{color2}} 1/8
| 9
1/9 {{color3}} 0.{{overline|1}} 0.{{overline|1C7}} {{color3}} 1/9
| 10
1/10 {{color2}}, {{color5}}| 0.1 0.1{{overline|9}} {{color2}}, {{color5}} 1/A
| 11
1/11 {{color11}} 0.{{overline|09}} 0.{{overline|1745D}} B 1/B
| 12
1/12 {{color2}}, {{color3}} 0.08{{overline|3}} 0.1{{overline|5}} {{color2}}, {{color3}} 1/C
| 13
1/13 13 0.{{overline|076923}} 0.{{overline|13B}} D 1/D
| 14
1/14 {{color2}}, 7 0.0{{overline|714285}} 0.1{{overline|249}} {{color2}}, 7 1/E
| 15
1/15 {{color3}}, {{color5}} 0.0{{overline|6}} 0.{{overline|1}} {{color3}}, {{color5}} 1/F
| 16
1/16 {{color2}}| 0.0625| 0.1 {{color2}} 1/10
| 17
1/17 17 0.{{overline|0588235294117647}} 0.{{overline|0F}} {{color11}} 1/11
| 18
1/18 {{color2}}, {{color3}} 0.0{{overline|5}} 0.0{{overline|E38}} {{color2}}, {{color3}} 1/12
| 19
1/19 19 0.{{overline|052631578947368421}} 0.{{overline|0D79435E5}} 13 1/13
| 20
1/20 {{color2}}, {{color5}}| 0.05 0.0{{overline|C}} {{color2}}, {{color5}} 1/14
| 21
1/21 {{color3}}, 7 0.{{overline|047619}} 0.{{overline|0C3}} {{color3}}, 7 1/15
| 22
1/22 {{color2}}, {{color11}} 0.0{{overline|45}} 0.0{{overline|BA2E8}} {{color2}}, B 1/16
| 23
1/23 23 0.{{overline|0434782608695652173913}} 0.{{overline|0B21642C859}} 17 1/17
| 24
1/24 {{color2}}, {{color3}} 0.041{{overline|6}} 0.0{{overline|A}} {{color2}}, {{color3}} 1/18
| 25
1/25 {{color5}}| 0.04 0.{{overline|0A3D7}} {{color5}} 1/19
| 26
1/26 {{color2}}, 13 0.0{{overline|384615}} 0.0{{overline|9D8}} {{color2}}, D 1/1A
| 27
1/27 {{color3}} 0.{{overline|037}} 0.{{overline|097B425ED}} {{color3}} 1/1B
| 28
1/28 {{color2}}, 7 0.03{{overline|571428}} 0.0{{overline|924}} {{color2}}, 7 1/1C
| 29
1/29 29 0.{{overline|0344827586206896551724137931}} 0.{{overline|08D3DCB}} 1D 1/1D
| 30
1/30 {{color2}}, {{color3}}, {{color5}} 0.0{{overline|3}} 0.0{{overline|8}} {{color2}}, {{color3}}, {{color5}} 1/1E
| 31
1/31 31 0.{{overline|032258064516129}} 0.{{overline|08421}} 1F 1/1F
| 32
1/32 {{color2}}| 0.03125| 0.08 {{color2}} 1/20
| 33
1/33 {{color3}}, {{color11}} 0.{{overline|03}} 0.{{overline|07C1F}} {{color3}}, B 1/21
| 34
1/34 {{color2}}, 17 0.0{{overline|2941176470588235}} 0.0{{overline|78}} {{color2}}, {{color11}} 1/22
| 35
1/35 {{color5}}, 7 0.0{{overline|285714}} 0.{{overline|075}} {{color5}}, 7 1/23
| 36
1/36 {{color2}}, {{color3}} 0.02{{overline|7}} 0.0{{overline|71C}} {{color2}}, {{color3}} 1/24
| 37
1/37 37 0.{{overline|027}} 0.{{overline|06EB3E453}} 25 1/25

Irrational numbers

The table below gives the expansions of some common irrational numbers in decimal and hexadecimal.{| class=“wikitable“! rowspan=2 | Number! colspan=2 | Positional representation! Decimal! Hexadecimal
Square root of 2>{{sqrt (the length of the diagonal of a unit Square (geometry)>square)1.414213562373095048}}...| 1.6A09E667F3BCD...
3}} (the length of the diagonal of a unit cube)1.732050807568877293}}...| 1.BB67AE8584CAA...
5}} (the length of the diagonal of a 1×2 rectangle)2.236067977499789696}}...| 2.3C6EF372FE95...
Golden ratio}} (phi, the golden ratio = {{math>(1+{{radical|5}})/2}})1.618033988749894848}}...| 1.9E3779B97F4A...
Ï€}} (pi, the ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle)3.141592653589793238462643}}{{val|383279502884197169399375105}}...| 3.243F6A8885A308D313198A2E03707344A4093822299F31D008...
e}} (the base of the natural logarithm)2.718281828459045235}}...| 2.B7E151628AED2A6B...
τ}} (the Thue–Morse constant)0.412454033640107597}}...| 0.6996 9669 9669 6996...
Euler-Mascheroni constant}} (the limiting difference between the harmonic series (mathematics)>harmonic series and the natural logarithm)0.577215664901532860}}...| 0.93C467E37DB0C7A4D1B...

Powers

Powers of two have very simple expansions in hexadecimal. The first sixteen powers of two are shown below.{| class=“wikitable“! 2x !! Value !! Value (Decimal)
10{{sub
11{{sub
12{{sub
13{{sub
14{{sub
15{{sub
16{{sub

Cultural history

The traditional Chinese units of measurement were base-16. For example, one jÄ«n (æ–¤) in the old system equals sixteen taels. The suanpan (Chinese abacus) can be used to perform hexadecimal calculations such as additions and subtractions.WEB,totton.idirect.com/soroban/Hex_as/, 算盤 Hexadecimal Addition & Subtraction on a Chinese Abacus, totton.idirect.com, 2019-06-26, 2019-07-06,totton.idirect.com/soroban/Hex_as/," title="web.archive.org/web/20190706221609totton.idirect.com/soroban/Hex_as/,">web.archive.org/web/20190706221609totton.idirect.com/soroban/Hex_as/, live, As with the duodecimal system, there have been occasional attempts to promote hexadecimal as the preferred numeral system. These attempts often propose specific pronunciation and symbols for the individual numerals.WEB
,www.hauptmech.com/base42
, Base 4^2 Hexadecimal Symbol Proposal
, Hauptmech
, 2008-09-04
, 2021-10-20
,www.hauptmech.com/base42/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page" title="web.archive.org/web/20211020192525www.hauptmech.com/base42/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page">web.archive.org/web/20211020192525www.hauptmech.com/base42/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page
, live
, Some proposals unify standard measures so that they are multiples of 16.WEB,www.intuitor.com/hex/, Intuitor Hex Headquarters, Intuitor, 28 October 2018, 2010-09-04,www.intuitor.com/hex/," title="web.archive.org/web/20100904144850www.intuitor.com/hex/,">web.archive.org/web/20100904144850www.intuitor.com/hex/, live, WEB,std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2677, A proposal for addition of the six Hexadecimal digits (A-F) to Unicode, DKUUG Standardizing, Niemietz, Ricardo Cancho, 21 October 2003, 28 October 2018, 2011-06-04,std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2677," title="web.archive.org/web/20110604035450std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2677,">web.archive.org/web/20110604035450std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2677, live,
An early such proposal was put forward by John W. Nystrom in Project of a New System of Arithmetic, Weight, Measure and Coins: Proposed to be called the Tonal System, with Sixteen to the Base, published in 1862.BOOK,archive.org/details/bub_gb_aNYGAAAAYAAJ, Project of a New System of Arithmetic, Weight, Measure and Coins: Proposed to be called the Tonal System, with Sixteen to the Base, Nystrom, John William, Lippincott, 1862, Philadelphia, Nystrom among other things suggested hexadecimal time, which subdivides a day by 16, so that there are 16 “hours” (or “10 tims”, pronounced tontim) in a day.Nystrom (1862), p. 33:“In expressing time, angle of a circle, or points on the compass, the unit tim should be noted as integer, and parts thereof as tonal fractions, as 5·86 tims is five times and metonby [*“sutim and metonby” John Nystrom accidentally gives part of the number in decimal names; in Nystrom’s pronunciation scheme, 5=su, 8=me, 6=by, c.f. unifoundry.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519080658www.unifoundry.com/tonal/index.html |date=2021-05-19 }} ].“{{anchor|Etymology}}{{wiktionary|hexadecimal}}The word hexadecimal is first recorded in 1952.C. E. Fröberg, Hexadecimal Conversion Tables, Lund (1952). It is macaronic in the sense that it combines Greek ἕξ (hex) “six” with Latinate -decimal.The all-Latin alternative (:wikt:sexadecimal|sexadecimal) (compare the word sexagesimal for base 60) is older, and sees at least occasional use from the late 19th century.The Century Dictionary of 1895 has sexadecimal in the more general sense of “relating to sixteen”.An early explicit use of sexadecimal in the sense of “using base 16” is found also in 1895, in the Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, vols. 27–28, p. 197.It is still in use in the 1950s in Bendix documentation.Schwartzman (1994) argues that use of sexadecimal may have been avoided because of its suggestive abbreviation to sex.BOOK, Steven, Schwartzman, The Words of Mathematics: An etymological dictionary of mathematical terms used in English, 1994, The Mathematical Association of America, 105, 0-88385-511-9, s.v. hexadecimalMany western languages since the 1960s have adopted terms equivalent in formation to hexadecimal (e.g. French hexadécimal, Italian esadecimale, Romanian hexazecimal, Serbian хексадецимални, etc.)but others have introduced terms which substitute native words for “sixteen” (e.g. Greek δεκαεξαδικός, Icelandic sextándakerfi, Russian шестнадцатеричной etc.)Terminology and notation did not become settled until the end of the 1960s. Donald Knuth in 1969 argued that the etymologically correct term would be senidenary, or possibly sedenary, a Latinate term intended to convey “grouped by 16” modelled on binary, ternary and quaternary etc.According to Knuth’s argument, the correct terms for decimal and octal arithmetic would be denary and octonary, respectively.Knuth, Donald. (1969). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2. {{isbn|0-201-03802-1}}. (Chapter 17.) Alfred B. Taylor used senidenary in his mid-1800s work on alternative number bases, although he rejected base 16 because of its “incommodious number of digits”.Alfred B. Taylor, Report on Weights and Measures, Pharmaceutical Association, 8th Annual Session, Boston, 15 September 1859. See pages and 33 and 41.Alfred B. Taylor, “Octonary numeration and its application to a system of weights and measures”, Proc Amer. Phil. Soc. Vol XXIV {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624070056books.google.com/books?id=KsAUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296 |date=2016-06-24 }}, Philadelphia, 1887; pages 296–366. See pages 317 and 322.The now-current notation using the letters A to F establishes itself as the de facto standard beginning in 1966, in the wake of the publication of the Fortran IV manual for IBM System/360, which (unlike earlier variants of Fortran) recognizes a standard for entering hexadecimal constants.IBM System/360 FORTRAN IV Language {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519073220www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/fortran/C28-6515-6_FORTRAN_IV_Language_1966.pdf |date=2021-05-19 }} (1966), p. 13.As noted above, alternative notations were used by NEC (1960) and The Pacific Data Systems 1020 (1964). The standard adopted by IBM seems to have become widely adopted by 1968, when Bruce Alan Martinin his letter to the editor of the CACM complains that{{blockquote|With the ridiculous choice of letters A, B, C, D, E, F as hexadecimal number symbols adding to already troublesome problems of distinguishing octal (or hex) numbers from decimal numbers (or variable names), the time is overripe for reconsideration of our number symbols. This should have been done before poor choices gelled into a de facto standard!}}Martin’s argument was that use of numerals 0 to 9 in nondecimal numbers “imply to us a base-ten place-value scheme”:“Why not use entirely new symbols (and names) for the seven or fifteen nonzero digits needed in octal or hex. Even use of the letters A through P would be an improvement, but entirely new symbols could reflect the binary nature of the system”.He also argued that “re-using alphabetic letters for numerical digits represents a gigantic backward step from the invention of distinct, non-alphabetic glyphs for numerals sixteen centuries ago” (as Brahmi numerals, and later in a Hindu–Arabic numeral system), and that the recent ASCII standards (ASA X3.4-1963 and USAS X3.4-1968) “should have preserved six code table positions following the ten decimal digits -- rather than needlessly filling these with punctuation characters“(”:;?“) that might have been placed elsewhere among the 128 available positions.

Base16 (transfer encoding)

Base16 (as a proper name without a space) can also refer to a binary to text encoding belonging to the same family as Base32, Base58, and Base64.In this case, data is broken into 4-bit sequences, and each value (between 0 and 15 inclusively) is encoded using one of 16 symbols from the ASCII character set. Although any 16 symbols from the ASCII character set can be used, in practice the ASCII digits ‘0’–’9’ and the letters ‘A’–’F’ (or the lowercase ‘a’–’f’) are always chosen in order to align with standard written notation for hexadecimal numbers.There are several advantages of Base16 encoding:
  • Most programming languages already have facilities to parse ASCII-encoded hexadecimal
  • Being exactly half a byte, 4-bits is easier to process than the 5 or 6 bits of Base32 and Base64 respectively
  • The symbols 0–9 and A–F are universal in hexadecimal notation, so it is easily understood at a glance without needing to rely on a symbol lookup table
  • Many CPU architectures have dedicated instructions that allow access to a half-byte (otherwise known as a “nibble“), making it more efficient in hardware than Base32 and Base64
The main disadvantages of Base16 encoding are:
  • Space efficiency is only 50%, since each 4-bit value from the original data will be encoded as an 8-bit byte. In contrast, Base32 and Base64 encodings have a space efficiency of 63% and 75% respectively.
  • Possible added complexity of having to accept both uppercase and lowercase letters
Support for Base16 encoding is ubiquitous in modern computing. It is the basis for the W3C standard for URL percent encoding, where a character is replaced with a percent sign “%” and its Base16-encoded form. Most modern programming languages directly include support for formatting and parsing Base16-encoded numbers.

See also

References



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