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In Jainism

In Hinduism

In Buddhism

1. gangzak gyüpé lama — the individual teacher who is the holder of the lineage
2. gyalwa ka yi lama — the teacher which is the word of the buddhas
3. nangwa da yi lama — the symbolic teacher of all appearances
4. rigpa dön gyi lama — the absolute teacher, which is rigpa, the true nature of mind

In Sikhism

Western perspective

Viewpoints

• Jiddu Krishnamurti, groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the leadership of the Theosophical Society in the early part of the 20th century, publicly renounced this role in 1929 while also denouncing the concept of gurus, spiritual leaders, and teachers, advocating instead the unmediated and direct investigation of reality.Jiddu, Krishnamurti (September 1929). "The Dissolution of the Order of the Star: A Statement by J. Krishnamurti". International Star Bulletin 2 [Volumes not numbered in original] (2) [Issues renumbered starting August 1929]: 28-34. (Eerde: Star Publishing Trust). {{OCLC|34693176}}. J.Krishnamurti Online. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
• U. G. Krishnamurti, [no relation to Jiddu], sometimes characterized as a "spiritual anarchist", denied both the value of gurus and the existence of any related worthwhile "teaching".Uppaluri Gopala (U. G.) Krishnamurti (2002) (Revised ed.) [Originally published 1982. Goa, India: Dinesh Vaghela Cemetile]. s:The Mystique of Enlightenment/Part One|The Mystique of Enlightenm. Arms, Rodney ed. Sentient Publications. Paperback. p. 2. {{ISBN|0-9710786-1-0}}. Wikisource. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
• Dr. David C. Lane proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical.Lane, David C., weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20091027111139weblink">Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical (1984) One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following Ockham's razor and by using common sense, and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.
• Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from Eastern tradition in Western society, Dr. Georg Feuerstein, a well-known German-American Indologist, writes in the article weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20050205055250weblink">Understanding the Guru from his book The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice:"The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. [...] Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing.".Feuerstein, Georg Dr. The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice, Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) {{ISBN|1-57062-928-5}} In his Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of yoga to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.
• A British professor of psychiatry, Anthony Storr, states in his book, Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus, that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of schizophrenia. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, paranoid, (wikt:eloquent|eloquent), or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to Eileen Barker's checklist to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of psychosis to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as Jesus, Muhammad, Buddha, Gurdjieff, Rudolf Steiner, Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud, Jim Jones and David Koresh.Storr, Anthony Dr. Feet of clay: a study of gurus 1996 {{ISBN|0-684-83495-2}} The Belgian Indologist Koenraad Elst criticized Storr's book for its avoidance of the term prophet instead of guru for several people. Elst asserts that this is possibly due to Storr's pro-Western, pro-Christian cultural bias.
• Rob Preece, a psychotherapist and a practicing Buddhist, writes in The Noble Imperfection that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of naiveté amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of transference to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves." In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype".Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life, Mudras Publications
• According to a professor of religious studies at Dawson College in Quebec, Susan J. Palmer, the word guru has acquired very negative connotations in France.Palmer, Susan, article in the book NRMs in the 21st century: legal, political, and social challenges in global perspective edited by Phillip Charles Lucas and Thomas Robbins, (2004) {{ISBN|0-415-96577-2}}
• The psychiatrist Alexander Deutsch performed a long-term observation of a small cult, called The Family (not to be confused with Family International), founded by an American guru called Baba or Jeff in New York in 1972, who showed increasingly schizophrenic behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly Jewish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as holy madness, and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author.Deutsch, Alexander M.D. Observations on a sidewalk ashram Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175Deutsch, Alexander M.D. Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.
• Jan van der Lans (1933–2002), a professor of the psychology of religion at the Catholic University of Nijmegen, wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands-based Catholic Study Center for Mental Health, about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false mysticism. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality, but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes is often lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical personality cult.{{refn|"Wat Van der Lans hier signaleert, is het gevaar dat de goeroe een instantie van absolute overgave en totale overdracht wordt. De leerling krijgt de gelegenheid om zijn grootheidsfantasieën op de goeroe te projecteren, zonder dat de goeroe daartegen als kritische instantie kan optreden. Het lijkt er zelfs vaak eerder op dat de goeroe in woord, beeld en geschrift juist geneigd is deze onkritische houding te stimuleren. Dit geldt zeker ook voor goeroe Maharaji, maar het heeft zich -gewild en ongewild ook voorgedaan bij Anandamurti en Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. [..] De vergoddelijking van de goeroe is 'een traditioneel element in de Oosterse spiritualiteit, maar, losgemaakt, uit dit cultuurmilieu en overgenomen door Westerse mensen, gaat het onderscheid vaak verloren tussen de persoon van de goeroe en dat wat hij symboliseert en verwordt tot een kritiekloze persoonlijkheidsverheerlijking' (Van der Lans 1981b, 108)"Partial literal English translation "The deification of the guru is a 'traditional element in Eastern spirituality, but, detached from this cultural environment en used by Westerners, the distinction between the person of the guru and that what he symbolizes is often lost en it degenerates into an uncritical glorification of the personality.'(Van der Lans 1981b, 108)"Lans, Jan van der Dr. (Dutch language) Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050114094319weblink |date=2005-01-14 }}, written upon request for the KSGV {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208164006weblink |date=2005-02-08 }} published by Ambo, Baarn, 1981 {{ISBN|90-263-0521-4}}Schnabel, Paul Dr. (Dutch language) Between stigma and charisma: new religious movements and mental health Erasmus university Rotterdam, Faculty of Medicine, Ph.D. thesis, {{ISBN|90-6001-746-3}} (Deventer, Van Loghum Slaterus, 1982) Chapter V, page 142|group=Note}}
• In their 1993 book, The Guru Papers, authors Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer reject the guru-disciple tradition because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of surrender to him. Alstad and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be hypocrites because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power (1993) {{ISBN|1-883319-00-5}}
• According to the journalist Sacha Kester, in a 2003 article in the Dutch newspaper De Volkskrant, finding a guru is a precarious matter, pointing to the many holy men in India and the case of Sathya Sai Baba whom Kester considers a swindler. In this article he also quotes the book Karma Cola describing that in this book a German economist tells author Gita Mehta, "It is my opinion that quality control has to be introduced for gurus. Many of my friends have become crazy in India". She describes a comment by Suranya Chakraverti who said that some Westerners do not believe in spirituality and ridicule a true guru. Other westerners, Chakraverti said, on the other hand believe in spirituality but tend to put faith in a guru who is a swindler.Kester, Sacha "Ticket naar Nirvana"/"Ticket to Nirvana", article in the Dutch Newspaper De Volkskrant 7 January 2003

See also

• Lineage
  • Guru–shishya tradition
  • Parampara
  • Sampradaya
  • Lineage (Buddhism)
  • List of Hindu gurus
• Lifestyle
  • Akhara
  • Apprenticeship
  • Chillum
  • Darshan
  • Gurukula
  • Kaupinam
  • Kacchera
  • Langota
• Others
  • Aghori
  • Charismatic authority
  • Godman
  • Guru Gita
  • Gurunath
  • Hindu reform movements
  • Lama
  • Lifestyle guru
  • Nath
  • Religious conversion
  • Shramana
  • Sikh gurus
  • Sifu
  • Sensei

Notes

References

Further reading

• Jacob Copeman and Aya Ikegame (2012), The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415510196}}
• André Padoux (2013), The Tantric Guru, in Tantra in Practice (Editor: David Gordon White), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120817784}}
• Karen Pechelis (2004), The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195145373}}
• Alex Wayman (1987), The Guru in Buddhism, {{Google books|go3Gj0QudHAC|Studia Missionalia}}, Volume 36, Universita Gregoriana Roma, pages 195-214
• Brown, Mick The Spiritual Tourist, Bloomsbury publishing, 1998, {{ISBN|1-58234-034-X}}
• van der Braak, André (2003). Enlightenment Blues: My Years with an American Guru. Monkfish Book Publishing. {{ISBN|0-9726357-1-8}}
• Thomas Forsthoefel and Cynthia Ann Humes, Eds. Gurus in America. Albany, New York: SUNY Press, 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-6573-8}}
• Sister Nivedita, The Master as I Saw Him, Kolkata: Udbodhan Office, 1993.
• Swami Satyananda, Devi Mandir, "Shree Maa: Guru and Goddess" ({{ISBN|1-887472-78-9}} )
• Freimann, Amir (2018), Spiritual Transmission: Paradoxes and Dilemmas on the Spiritual Path, Monkfish Book Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1939681966}}

External links

• Guru choice and spiritual seeking in contemporary India, M Warrier (2003), International Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 7, Issue 1-3, pages 31–54
• Guru-shishya relationship in Indian culture: The possibility of a creative resilient framework, MK Raina (2002), Journal: Psychology & Developing Societies
• Mentors in Indian mythology - Guru and Gurukul system, P. Nachimuthu (2006), Management and Labor Studies
• Scandals in emerging Western Buddhism - Gurus, Sandra Bell (2002), Durham University
• The Guru as Pastoral Counselor, Raymond Williams (1986), Journal of Pastoral Care Counseling
• The Tradition of Female Gurus, Catherine Clémentin-Ojha (1985)
• The Guru in Hindu Tradition, J Mlecko (1982), Numen (journal)
• Hindu Concepts of Teacher, Sanskrit Guru and Ä€cārya, Minoru Hara (1980), Sanskrit and Indian Studies
• The Guru and the Conjurer: Transactions in Knowledge and the Shaping of Culture in Southeast Asia and Melanesia, Fredrik Barth (1990), Journal: Man