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Guru
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{{Other uses}}Guru ({{IPAc-en|Ë|É¡|uË|r|uË}}, {{small|UK also}} {{IPAc-en|Ë|É¡|Êr|uË|,_|Ë|É¡|ÊÉr|-}}; , IAST: guru) is a Sanskrit term that connotes someone who is a "teacher, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field.Stefan Pertz (2013), The Guru in Me - Critical Perspectives on Management, GRIN Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3638749251}}, pages 2-3 In pan-Indian traditions, guru is more than a teacher, in Sanskrit guru means the one who dispels the darkness and takes towards light, traditionally a reverential figure to the student, with the guru serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student". The term also refers to someone who primarily is one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the gurus already realized.Guru, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013) Guru is also the word for "teacher" in IndonesianWEB,weblink Arti kata guru - Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) Online, and Malay language.The oldest references to the concept of guru are found in the earliest Vedic texts of Hinduism. The guru, and gurukul â a school run by guru, were an established tradition in India by the 1st millennium BCE, and these helped compose and transmit the various Vedas, the Upanishads, texts of various schools of Hindu philosophy, and post-Vedic Shastras ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts. By about mid 1st millennium CE, archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggest numerous larger institutions of gurus existed in India, some near Hindu temples, where guru-shishya tradition helped preserve, create and transmit various fields of knowledge. These gurus led broad ranges of studies including Hindu scriptures, Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.The tradition of guru is also found in Jainism, referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a Jain ascetic.Jeffery D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, IB Tauris, {{ISBN|978-1845116262}}, pages 110, 196 In Sikhism, the guru tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as Guru Nanak, and its scripture as Guru Granth Sahib.William Owen Cole (1982), The Guru in Sikhism, Darton Longman & Todd, {{ISBN|9780232515091}}, pages 1-4 The guru concept has thrived in VajrayÄna Buddhism, where the tantric guru is considered a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.In the Western world, the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain tantra schools, self-help, hippie and new religious movements.Forsthoefel, T. and C. Humes (2005), Gurus in AmericaGuru is not just a person but it is considered as the divine guiding energy which helps humanity to realise its true nature. This energy works through an able person who is pure enough to hold it. This is the reason in Hinduism Guru is considered as God himself.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Definition and etymology
The word {{IAST|guru}} (Sanskrit: ), a noun, connotes "teacher" in Sanskrit, but in Indian traditions it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English.Joel Mlecko (1982), The Guru in Hindu Tradition Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 33-61 The guru is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life." The word has the same meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Bengali, Gujarati and Nepali. The Malayalam term Acharyan or Asan are derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya.As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge (jñÄna; also Pali: ñÄna). As an adjective, it means 'heavy,' or 'weighty,' in the sense of "heavy with knowledge,"{{refn|"Guru: a spiritual master; one who is heavy with knowledge of the Absolute and who removes nescience with the light of the divine."Tirtha Goswami Maharaj, A Taste of Transcendence, (2002) p. 161, Mandala Press. {{ISBN|1-886069-71-9}}.|group=Note}} heavy with spiritual wisdom,Lipner, Julius J.,Their Religious Beliefs and Practices p.192, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN|0-415-05181-9}} "heavy with spiritual weight,"Cornille, C. The Guru in Indian Catholicism (1991) p.207. Peeters Publishers {{ISBN|90-6831-309-6}} "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization,"Hopkins, Jeffrey Reflections on Reality (2002) p. 72. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-21120-0}} or "heavy with a wealth of knowledge."Varene, Jean. Yoga and the Hindu Tradition (1977). p.226. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-85116-8}} The word has its roots in the Sanskrit gri (to invoke, or to praise), and may have a connection to the word gur, meaning 'to raise, lift up, or to make an effort'.BOOK, Sacred Sanskrit Words'', Leza A., Lowitz, 85, Stone Bridge Press, 2004, 1-880-6568-76, Sanskrit guru is cognate with Latin gravis 'heavy; grave, weighty, serious'BOOK, The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, Robert K., Barnhart, 447, H.W. Wilson Co., 1988, 978-0-8242-0745-8, and Greek βαÏÏÏ barus 'heavy'. All three derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *gÊ·erÉ-, specifically from the zero-grade form *gÊ·rÌ¥É-.BOOK, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin, 4th, 2000, 978-0-395-82517-4, 2031,Darkness and light
।The syllable gu means darkness, the syllable ru, he who dispels them,Because of the power to dispel darkness, the guru is thus named.Advayataraka Upanishad> Verse 16Advayataraka Upanishad with Commentaries {{webarchive | weblink >date=2015-09-24 }}, Verse 16, SanskritG Feuerstein (1989), Yoga, Tarcher, {{ISBN|978-0874775259}}, pages 240-243}}Another etymological theory considers the term "guru" to be based on the syllables gu () and ru (), which it claims stands for darkness and "light that dispels it", respectively.{{refn|"[...] the term is a combination of the two words gu(darkness) and ru (light), so together they mean 'divine light that dispels all darkness.'" [...] "Guru is the light that disperses the darkness of ignorance."Murray, Thomas R. Moral Development Theories - Secular and Religious: A Comparative Study. (1997). p. 231. Greenwood Press.|group=Note}} The guru is seen as the one who "dispels the darkness of ignorance."{{refn|"The etymological derivation of the word guru is in this verse from Guru Gita: 'The root gu stands for darkness; ru for its removal. The removal of the darkness of ignorance in the heart is indicated by the word "guru'" (Note: Guru Gita is a spiritual text in the Markandeya Purana, in the form of a dialog between Siva and Parvati on the nature of the guru and the guru/disciple relationship.) [...] the meanings of gu and ru can also be traced to the Panini-sutras gu samvarane and ru himsane, indicating concealment and its annulment."Grimes, John. A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. (1996) p.133. SUNY Press. {{ISBN|0-7914-3067-7}}|group=Note}}{{refn|"Guru: remover of darkness, bestower of light'"|group=Note}}Krishnamurti, J. The Awakening of Intelligence. (1987) p.139. HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-06-064834-1}}Reender Kranenborg disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word guru. He describes this as a folk etymology.{{refn|Dutch original: "a. De goeroe als geestelijk raadsman Als we naar het verschijnsel goeroe in India kijken, kunnen we constateren dat er op zijn minst vier vormen van goeroeschap te onderscheiden zijn. De eerste vorm is die van de 'geestelijk raadsman'. Voordat we dit verder uitwerken eerst iets over de etymologie. Het woord goeroe komt uit het Sanskriet, wordt geschreven als 'guru' en betekent 'zwaar zijn', 'gewichtig zijn', vooral in figuurlijk opzicht. Zo krijgt het begrip 'guru' de betekenis van 'groot', 'geweldig' of 'belangrijk', en iets verdergaand krijgt het aspecten van 'eerbiedwaardig' en 'vererenswaardig'. Al vrij snel word dit toegepast op de 'geestelijk leraar'. In allerlei populaire literatuur, ook in India zelf, wordt het woord 'guru' uiteengelegd in 'gu' en 'ru', als omschrijvingen voor licht en duister; de goeroe is dan degene die zijn leerling uit het materiële duister overbrengt naar het geestelijk licht. Misschien doe een goeroe dat ook inderdaad, maar het heeft niets met de betekenis van het woord te maken, het is volksetymologie."English translation "a. The guru as spiritual adviser: If we look at the phenomenon of gurus in India then we can see that there are at least four forms of guruship that can be distinguished. The first form is that of the "spiritual adviser." Before we will elaborate on this, first something about the etymology. The word guru comes from Sanskrit, is written as 'guru' and connotes philosophically 'being heavy' or 'being weighty'. In that way, the concept of guru gets the meaning of 'big', 'great', or 'important' and somewhat further it also gets aspects of 'respectable' and 'honorable'. Soon it is applied to the 'spiritual adviser'. In various popular literature, in India herself too, the word 'guru' is explained in the parts 'gu' and 'ru', as descriptions for light and darkness: the guru is then the person who bring the student from the material darkness into the spiritual light. A guru may indeed do that, but it has nothing to do with the meaning of the word, it is folk etymology."Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht page 50 (En: Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands, published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) {{ISBN|90-435-0493-9}} Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht (En: Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands, published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) {{ISBN|90-435-0493-9}} page 50|group=Note}}Joel Mlecko states, "Gu means ignorance, and Ru means dispeller," with guru meaning the one who "dispels ignorance, all kinds of ignorance", ranging from spiritual to skills such as dancing, music, sports and others.Joel Mlecko (1982), The Guru in Hindu Tradition Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 33-34 Karen Pechelis states that, in the popular parlance, the "dispeller of darkness, one who points the way" definition for guru is common in the Indian tradition.Karen Pechelis (2004), The Graceful Guru, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195145373}}, pages 25-26In Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion, Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between "occult" and "scientific" etymologies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of 'guru' in which the derivation is presented as gu ("darkness") and ru ('to push away'); the latter he exemplifies by "guru" with the meaning of 'heavy'.Riffard, Pierre A. in Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion Faivre A. & Hanegraaff W. (Eds.) Peeters Publishers( 1988), {{ISBN|90-429-0630-8}}In JainismGuru is the spiritual preceptor in Jainism, and typically a role served by Jain ascetics.Christopher Partridge (2013), Introduction to World Religions, Augsburg Fortress, {{ISBN|978-0800699703}}, page 252 The guru is one of three fundamental tattva (categories), the other two being dharma (teachings) and deva (divinity). The guru-tattva is what leads a lay person to the other two tattva.John Cort (2011), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199796649}}, page 100 In some communities of the ÅvÄtÄmbara sect of Jainism, a traditional system of guru-disciple lineage exists.Peter Fl Gel and Peter Flügel (2006), Studies in Jaina History and Culture, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1134235520}}, pages 249-250The guru is revered in Jainism ritually with Guru-vandan or Guru-upashti, where respect and offerings are made to the guru, and the guru sprinkles a small amount of vaskep (a scented powder mixture of sandalwood, saffron, and camphor) on the devotee's head with a mantra or blessings.John Cort (2011), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199796649}}, pages 111-115In Hinduism{{further|list of Hindu gurus}}The Guru is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of Hinduism. The ultimate liberation, contentment, freedom in the form of moksha and inner perfection is considered achievable in the Hindu belief by two means: with the help of guru, and with evolution through the process of karma including rebirth in some schools of Hindu philosophy. At an individual level in Hinduism, the Guru is many things, including being a teacher of skills, a counselor, one who helps in the birth of mind and realization of one's soul, who instils values and experiential knowledge, an exemplar, an inspiration and who helps guide a student's (Åiá¹£ya) spiritual development. At a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life. Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture.In Buddhism{{Buddhism|terse=1}}{{further|Tibetan Buddhism}}In some forms of Buddhism, states Rita Gross, the concept of Guru is of supreme importance.Rita Gross (1993), Buddhism After Patriarchy, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791414033}}, page 253In Vajrayana Buddhism's Tantric teachings, the rituals require the guidance of a guru. The guru is considered essential and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the "enlightened teacher and ritual master", states Stephen Berkwitz.Stephen Berkwitz (2009), South Asian Buddhism: A Survey, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415452496}}, pages 130-133 The guru is known as the vajra guru (literally "diamond guru").BOOK, Strong, John S., The experience of Buddhism: sources and interpretations, Wadsworth Pub. Co, Belmont, CA, 1995, 76, 978-0-534-19164-1, Initiations or ritual empowerments are necessary before the student is permitted to practice a particular tantra, in Vajrayana Buddhist sects found in Tibet and South Asia. The tantras state that the guru is equivalent to Buddha, states Berkwitz, and is a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.William Johnston (2013), Encyclopedia of Monasticism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1579580902}}, page 371Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche (2007), Losing the Clouds, Gaining the Sky: Buddhism and the Natural Mind (Editor: Doris Wolter), Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0861713592}}, pages 72-76There are Four Kinds of Lama (Guru) or spiritual teacherWEB,weblink Lama, Rigpa Wiki, 2012-12-26, (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in Tibetan Buddhism:
In Sikhism{{Sikhi}}In Sikhism, Guru is the source of all knowledge which is Almighty. In Chopai Sahib, Guru Gobind Singh states about who is the Guru:The Temporal Lord, who created Shiva, the Yogi; who created Brahma, the Master of the Vedas;The Temporal Lord who fashioned the entire world; I salute the same Lord.The Temporal Lord, who created the whole world; who created gods, demons and yakshas;He is the only one form the beginning to the end; I consider Him only my Guru. | Dasam Granth>384-385Translation 1: Sri Dasam Granth Sahib {{webarchive | weblink >date=2015-09-24 }}, Verses 384-385, page 22; Translation 2}}The Sikh gurus were fundamental to the Sikh religion, however the concept in Sikhism differs from other usages. Sikhism is derived from the Sanskrit word shishya, or disciple and is all about the relationship between the teacher and a student.Geoffrey Parrinder (1971), World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present, Hamlyn Publishing, page 254, {{ISBN|978-0-87196-129-7}} The concept of Guru in Sikhism stands on two pillars i.e. Miri-Piri. 'Piri' means spiritual authority and 'Miri' means temporal authority.BOOK, Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance, University of Chicago Press, E. Marty, Martin, Appleby R. Scott, 1996, 278, 978-0226508849, Therefore, Guru in Sikhism is a teacher-leader. Traditionally, the concept of Guru is considered central in Sikhism, and its main scripture is prefixed as a Guru, called Guru Granth Sahib, the words therein called Gurbani.HS Singha & Satwant Kaur, "Sikhism, A Complete Introduction", Hemkunt Press, {{ISBN|81-7010-245-6}}, pages 21-29, 54-55Western perspectiveAs an alternative to established religions, some people in Europe and the USA looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the USA and established followings.In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the USA. According to the American sociologist David G. Bromley this was partially due to the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the USA.Bromley, David G., Ph.D. & Anson Shupe, Ph.D., Public Reaction against New Religious Movements article that appeared in Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association, edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) {{ISBN|0-89042-212-5}} According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values.Nugteren, Albertina (Tineke) Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the university of Tilburg)Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism, article that appeared at a 1997 CESNUR conference and that was published in the book New Religions in a Postmodern World edited by Mikael Rothstein and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions Aarhus University press, (2003) {{ISBN|87-7288-748-6}} According to the professor in sociology Stephen A. Kent at the University of Alberta and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including hippies turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get high without drugs.Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur (En: Self-realization: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture, published by Kampen Kok (1974)Kent, Stephen A. Dr. From slogans to mantras: social protest and religious conversion in the late Vietnam war era'' Syracuse University press {{ISBN|0-8156-2923-0}} (2001) According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the USA then, was because some anti-Vietnam War protesters and political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means. Some gurus and the groups they lead attracted opposition. One example of such group was the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON) founded by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demandingly ascetic lifestyle of bhakti yoga on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time.{{refn|"Devotees don't have such an easy time. They who choose to live in the temples â now a very small minority -chant the Hare Krishna mantra 1,728 time a day. [â¦] Those living in an ashram â far fewer than in the 1970s â have to get up at 4am for worship. All members have to give up meat, fish and eggs; alcohol, tobacco, drugs, tea and coffee; gambling, sports, games and novels; and sex except for procreation with marriage [â¦] It's a demanding lifestyle. Outsiders may wonder why people join."Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions 2001 UK, Cassell & Co. {{ISBN|0-304-35592-5}} entry ISKCON page 287,288|group=Note}}According to Kranenborg (1984), Jesus Christ fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) {{ISBN|90-239-0809-0}} pp 93-99''ViewpointsGurus and the Guru-shishya tradition have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, theologians, anti-cultists, skeptics, and religious philosophers.
See also{{div col |colwidth=12em}}
Notes{{reflist|group=Note}}References{{Reflist|30em}}Further reading
External links{{Wiktionary|lang=en|à¤à¥à¤°à¥}}{{Wiktionary}}
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