G. E. M. Anscombe
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Brute facts">influences =
Thomas Aquinas{{·}} Ludwig Wittgenstein>Wittgenstein | Philippa Foot{{·}} Michael Dummett
Donald Davidson (philosopher)>Donald Davidson{{·}} Cora Diamond | Rosalind Hursthouse{{·}} Paul Feyerabend>P. Feyerabend | Jenny Teichman{{·}}
Candace Vogler}}
G. E. M. Anscombe (
18 March,
1919 –
5 January,
2001), born
Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe, but better known as
Elizabeth Anscombe, was a
British analytic philosopher. A student of
Ludwig Wittgenstein, she became an authority on his work, and edited and translated many books drawn from his writings, above all his
Philosophical Investigations. She wrote on the
philosophy of mind,
philosophy of action,
philosophical logic,
philosophy of language, and
ethics. Her 1958 article "
Modern Moral Philosophy" introduced the term "
consequentialism" into the language of analytic philosophy; this and subsequent articles had a seminal influence on contemporary
virtue ethics. Her monograph
Intention is generally recognized as her greatest and most influential work, and the continuing philosophical interest in the concepts of intention, action and practical reasoning can be said to have taken its main impetus from this work.
Life
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G. E. M. Anscombe was born to Gertrude Elizabeth Anscombe and Alan Wells Anscombe, on
18 March,
1919, in
Limerick,
Ireland, where her father had been posted as an officer in the British army. She graduated from
Sydenham High School in 1937, and went on to read "Mods & Greats" (a course of study in
classics,
ancient history, and
philosophy) at
St Hugh's College of the
University of Oxford, graduating with a First in 1941. During her first undergraduate year she converted to
Roman Catholicism, and remained a lifelong devout Catholic. She garnered controversy when she publicly opposed Britain's entry into
World War II, although her father had been a soldier, and her brother was to serve during
World War II.She married
Peter Geach, like her a Roman Catholic convert, a student of Wittgenstein, and a distinguished British academic philosopher. Together they reared three sons and four daughters.After graduating from Oxford, Anscombe was awarded a research fellowship for postgraduate study at
Newnham College, Cambridge from 1942 to 1945. Her purpose was to attend
Ludwig Wittgenstein's lectures. Her interest in Wittgenstein's philosophy arose from reading the
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus as an undergraduate: she claimed to have conceived the idea of studying with Wittgenstein as soon as she opened the book in
Blackwell's and read section 5.53, "Identity of object I express by identity of sign, and not by using a sign for identity. Difference of objects I express by difference of signs." She became an enthusiastic student, feeling that Wittgenstein's therapeutic method helped to free her from philosophical difficulties in ways that her training in traditional systematic philosophy could not. As she wrote (in
Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Mind, pp. vii-ix, quoted in Monk, 1990, p. 497):{{cquote|For years, I would spend time, in cafés, for example, staring at objects saying to myself: "I see a packet. But what do I really see? How can I say that I see here anything more than a yellow expanse?" ...I always hated phenomenalism and felt trapped by it. I couldn't see my way out of it but I didn't believe it. It was no good pointing to difficulties about it, things which Russell found wrong with it, for example. The strength, the central nerve of it remained alive and raged achingly. It was only in Wittgenstein's classes in 1944 that I saw the nerve being extracted, the central thought
I have got this, and I define "yellow" (say) as this being effectively attacked.}}After her fellowship at Cambridge ended, she was awarded a research fellowship at
Somerville College, Oxford, but during the academic year of 1946 - 1947, she continued to travel to Cambridge once a week, together with her fellow student
W. A. Hijab, to attend tutorials with Wittgenstein on the
philosophy of religion. She became one of Wittgenstein's favorite students and one of his closest friends (Monk [1990] 497-498). An exception to his general dislike of academic women, Wittgenstein affectionately referred to her by the pet name "old man". His confidence in Anscombe's understanding of his perspective is shown by his choice of her as translator of his Philosophical Investigations before she had learned German, for which purpose he arranged a stay in Vienna.
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Anscombe visited with Wittgenstein many times after he left Cambridge in 1947, and travelled to Cambridge in April 1951 to visit him on his deathbed. Wittgenstein named her, along with
Rush Rhees and
Georg Henrik von Wright, as his
literary executor, and after his death in 1951, she was responsible for editing, translating, and publishing many of Wittgenstein's manuscripts and notebooks.She scandalized liberal colleagues with articles defending the Roman Catholic Church's opposition to
contraception in the 1960s and early 1970s. Later in life, she was arrested twice while protesting outside an abortion clinic in Britain, after abortion had been legalized (albeit with restrictions).Anscombe remained at Somerville College from 1946 to 1970. She was also known for her willingness to face fierce public controversy in the name of her Catholic faith. In 1956, while a research fellow at
Oxford University, she protested against Oxford's decision to grant an honorary degree to
Harry S. Truman, whom she denounced as a mass murderer for his use of
atomic bombs at
Hiroshima and
Nagasaki. Anscombe was elected
Professor of
Philosophy at
Cambridge University in 1970, where she served until her retirement in 1986.In her later years, Anscombe suffered from heart disease, and was nearly killed by an automobile accident in 1996. She spent her last years in the care of her family in
Cambridge. She died, aged 81, with her husband and four of their seven children at her bedside, on
5 January,
2001.
Debate with C. S. Lewis
As a young philosophy don, Anscombe acquired a reputation as a formidable debater. In 1948 she presented a paper at a meeting of Oxford's
Socratic Club in which she disputed
C. S. Lewis's argument that naturalism was self-refuting (found in the third chapter of original publication of his book
Miracles). Some associates of Lewis, primarily
George Sayer and
Derek Brewer, have remarked that Lewis lost the subsequent debate of her paper and that this loss was so humiliating that he abandoned theological argument and turned entirely to devotional writing and
children's literature.
(1) Anscombe's impression of the effect upon Lewis is somewhat different: {{cquote|The fact that Lewis rewrote that chapter, and rewrote it so that it now has those qualities [to meet Anscombe's objections], shows his honesty and seriousness. The meeting of the Socratic Club at which I read my paper has been described by several of his friends as a horrible and shocking experience which upset him very much. Neither Dr. Harvard (who had Lewis and me to dinner a few weeks later) nor Professor Jack Bennet remembered any such feelings on Lewis's part [...] My own recollection is that it was an occasion of sober discussion of certain quite definite criticisms, which Lewis's rethinking and rewriting showed he thought was accurate. I am inclined to construe the odd accounts of the matter by some of his friends—who seem not to have been interested in the actual arguments of the subject-matter—as an interesting example of the phenomenon called projection.
(2)}}As a result of the weaknesses pointed out in the contest, Lewis did substantially rewrite his argument for future editions of the book.
Work
Some of Anscombe's most frequently cited works are translations, editions and expositions of the work of her teacher Ludwig Wittgenstein. She wrote an introduction (1959) to Wittgenstein's 1921 book, the
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which brought to the fore the importance of
Gottlob Frege for Wittgenstein's thought and, partly on that basis, attacked
"positivist" interpretations of the work. She co-edited his posthumous second book,
Philosophische Untersuchungen/Philosophical Investigations (1953) with
Rush Rhees. Her English translation of the book appeared simultaneously and remains standard. She also edited or co-edited several volumes of selections from his notebooks, translating some of them, for example the
Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics (1956). Her most important work is indisputably the monograph
Intention (1957). Three volumes of collected papers were published in 1981:
From Parmenides to Wittgenstein;
Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Mind; and
Ethics, Religion and Politics. Another collection, "Human Life, Action and Ethics" appeared posthumously in 2005.The aim of
Intention (1957) was to make plain the character of human action and will. Anscombe approaches the matter through the concept of
intention, which, as she famously notes, has three modes of appearance in our language:{| class="wikitable"
| She is X'ing intentionally | intentional action
| She is X'ing with the intention of doing Y
or ...She is X'ing in order to Y| intention with which
or further intention in acting
|She intends to Y
or... She has expressed the intention to do Y| expression of intention for the future;
(what is expressed is what Davidson later called a pure intending)
She suggests that a true account must somehow connect these three uses of the concept, though later students of intention have sometimes denied this, and disputed some of the things she presupposes under the first and third headings. It is clear though that it is the second that is for her crucial to her main purpose, which is to comprehend the way in which human thought and understanding and conceptualization relate to the "events in a man's history", or the goings on of which he is subject. Rather than attempt to define intentions in abstraction from actions, thus taking the third heading first, Anscombe begins with the concept of an intentional action. This soon connected with the second heading. She says that what is up with a human being is an intentional action if the question 'Why,' taken in a certain sense (and evidently conceived as addressed to him), has application (Intention, par. 5-8). An agent can answer the 'why' question by giving a reason or purpose for her action. "To do Y" or "because I want to do Y" would be typical answers to this sort of "why?"; though they are not the only ones, they are crucial to the constitution of the phenomenon as a typical phenomenon of human life (sections 18-21). The agent's answer helps supply the descriptions under which the action is intentional. Anscombe was the first to clearly spell out that actions are intentional under some descriptions and not others. In her famous example, a man's action (which we might observe as consisting in moving an arm up and down while holding a handle) may be intentional under the description 'pumping water' but not under other descriptions such as 'contracting these muscles', 'tapping out this rhythm', and so on. This approach to action influenced Donald Davidson's theory, despite the fact that Davidson went on to argue for a causal theory of action that Anscombe never accepted (see Anscombe (1981) as well as Anscombe (1957)).
Intention (1957) is also the classic source for the idea that there is a difference in 'direction of fit' between cognitive states like beliefs and conative states like desire. (This theme is later taken up and discussed by Searle in
Intentionality (1983)). Cognitive states describe the world and are causally derived from the facts or objects they depict. Conative states do not describe the world, but aim to bring something about in the world. Anscombe used the example of a shopping list to illustrate the difference (see
Intention (1957), par.32). The list can be a straightforward observational report of what is actually bought (thereby acting like a cognitive state), or it can function as a conative state such as a command or desire, dictating what the agent should buy. If the agent fails to buy what is listed, we do not say that the list is untrue or incorrect; we say that the mistake is in the action, not the belief. According to Anscombe, this difference in direction of fit is a major difference between speculative knowledge (theoretical, empirical knowledge) and practical knowledge (knowledge of actions and morals). Whereas 'speculative knowledge' is 'derived from the objects known', practical knowledge is--in a phrase Anscombe lifts from Aquinas--'the cause of what it understands' (see
Intention (1957), par.87). Anscombe made great contributions to ethics as well as metaphysics. She is credited with having coined the term "
consequentialism". In her 1958 essay "
Modern Moral Philosophy", Anscombe wrote:{{cquote|The denial of any distinction between foreseen and intended consequences, as far as responsibility is concerned, was not made by
Sidgwick in developing any one 'method of ethics'; he made this important move on behalf of everybody and just on its own account; and I think it plausible to suggest that
this move on the part of Sidgwick explains the difference between old-fashioned
Utilitarianism and the
consequentialism, as I name it, which marks him and every English academic moral philosopher since him.}}Anscombe also coined the term "
brute facts", as opposed to facts constituted by them in the presence of appropriate institutions. The term had a major role to play in
John Searle's philosophy and
speech act theory.Her paper "The First Person" follows up remarks by Wittgenstein, coming to the now-notorious conclusion that the first-person pronoun, "I", does not refer to anything (not, e.g., to the speaker). Few people accept the conclusion - though the position was later adopted in a more radical form by
David Lewis - but the paper was an important contribution to work on indexicals and self-consciousness that has been carried on by philosophers as varied as
John Perry,
Peter Strawson,
David Kaplan,
Gareth Evans, and
John McDowell.
Selected bibliography
- Intention (1957)
- An Introduction to Wittgenstein's Tractatus (1959)
- Three Philosophers (1961), with P. T. Geach, on Aristotle, Aquinas and Frege
- Causality and Determination (1971), ISBN 0-521-08304-4
- Times, Beginnings and Causes (1975), ISBN 0-19-725712-7
- The Collected Philosophical Papers of G. E. M. Anscombe (3 vols., 1981):
- From Parmenides to Wittgenstein, ISBN 0-631-12922-7
- Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Mind, ISBN 0-631-12932-4
- Ethics, Religion and Politics, ISBN 0-631-12942-1
- Human Life, Action and Ethics: Essays (2005), ISBN 1-84540-013-5
Further reading
Sources
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[WEB,weblink Frequently Asked Questions About C.S. Lewis, ]
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[from the introduction to her Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Mind, 1981. weblink]
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External links
Elizabeth AnscombeElizabeth AnscombeG. E. M. AnscombeElizabeth AnscombeGertrude Elizabeth Margaret AnscombeG.E.M. Anscombeג.א.מ. אנסקוםElizabete AnskombaG. E. M. AnscombeG. E. M. Anscombeエリザベス・アンスコムG. E. M. AnscombeElizabeth AnscombeElizabeth AnscombeGertrude Elizabeth Margaret AnscombováElizabeth AnscombeGertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe
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