Friedrich Nietzsche (15 October 1844 - 25 August 1900, and pronounced: “NeeShuh”) was a Prussian (German) philosopher whose work encompassed Poetry, cultural criticism, philosophical essays, and aphorisms. Including strong elements of Philology, irony and insult, pointed criticisms of Truth and religious pseudo-morality, and “all too human” reflections on Humanity itself, Nietzsche's Philosophy is perhaps the most misunderstood and misrepresented, and yet the most curious of all the famous and great modern philosophers. The most cited, and particularly in the United States, misunderstood elements have included his use of an existing iconoclastic concept that “God is Dead” (running through Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, etc), his concept of the “Over Man” (Übermensch, a people who would have moved past the common philosophical and moral problems of our time), and his concept of the “Eternal Return” (a synthesis of becoming and diversity^[1]), among others. German readers are said to have been treated to a beautiful and expressive language in much of Nietzsche's original writings, while English translations, and especially academic interpretations, have created over a century of confusions.

Life and Works

Born on 15 October 1844, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche grew up in the town of Röcken in Prussia (near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony). He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, though Nietzsche later dropped his middle name. Nietzsche's great-grandfather, Gotthelf Engelbert Nietzsche (1714–1804), was an inspector and a philosopher, while Nietzsche's grandfather, Friedrich August Ludwig Nietzsche (1756–1826), was a theologian. Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–1849), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Nietzsche (née Oehler) (1826–1897), married in 1843, then after Friedrich, they had Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche in 1846 and Ludwig Joseph in 1848. Nietzsche's father died of a brain disease in 1849, after a year of excruciating agony, and Ludwig Joseph died six months later at the age of two. The family then moved to Naumburg with Nietzsche's maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters.

In early school, Nietzsche excelled in Christian Theology, and he was offered a scholarship to study at the Schulpforta, from 1858 to 1864, his first time away from family. He worked on poems and musical compositions, led “Germania”, a Music and Literature club, during his summers in Naumburg, and he received an important grounding in languages, including Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and French. Nietzsche composed several works for voice, piano, and violin. Richard Wagner was dismissive of Nietzsche's music, allegedly mocking a birthday gift of a piano composition sent by Nietzsche in 1871 to Wagner's wife, Cosima Wagner.

While at Schulpforta, Nietzsche pursued subjects that were perhaps considered unbecoming by his family compared to Theology, and after his graduation he again studied Theology and Classical Philology at University of Bonn in the hopes of becoming a minister. Yet, after one semester (and to the anger of his mother) he stopped theological studies and lost his faith. As early as his 1862 essay, “Fate and History”, Nietzsche argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity, as Ludwig Feuerbach's The Essence of Christianity influenced young Nietzsche with the argument that people created God, and not the other way around. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote a letter regarding his loss of faith to his deeply religious sister Elisabeth, saying, “Hence the ways of men part: if you wish to strive for peace of soul and pleasure, then believe; if you wish to be a devotee of truth, then inquire...” Strongly influenced by Feuerbach, Arthur Schopenhauer, and others, Nietzsche's philosophical thoughts subsequently were concentrated on studying Philology under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he followed to University of Leipzig in 1865. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after. Nietzsche described that it was Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation (1818) which caused an awakening of his philosophical interests. Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers he respected, later dedicating to him an essay, “Schopenhauer as Educator” in Untimely Meditations.

Soldier and Professor

In 1867 Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service in the Prussian Army in Naumburg, and was regarded as one of the finest horse riders among his fellow-recruits, despite an 1868 accident creating a chest injury, and his officers predicted he would soon reach the rank of captain. By 1869 and with Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received an offer to become a professor of Classical Philology at University of Basel in Switzerland. He was only 24 years old and had neither completed his doctorate nor received a teaching certificate, so he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Leipzig University in March 1869, again with Ritschl's support. To this day, Nietzsche is still among the youngest of any tenured Classics professors on record. Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche had renounced his Prussian citizenship, yet nevertheless later served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) as a medical orderly.

During his short time in the military, Nietzsche experienced the traumatic effects of battle, and he also contracted diphtheria and dysentery, then returning to Switzerland, observed the establishment of the German Empire under Otto von Bismarck with a degree of skepticism. His inaugural lecture at the university was “Homer and Classical Philology”. His doctoral thesis, “Contribution Toward the Study and the Critique of the Sources of Diogenes Laertius” was later published in Basel as a “congratulation”.

Though Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868 and later Wagner's wife, Cosima, he admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel he frequently visited the Wagner's house in Tribschen in Lucerne. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate circle, which included Franz Liszt, and in 1870 he gave Cosima his manuscript of “The Genesis of the Tragic Idea” as a birthday gift. Then, in 1872, Nietzsche published his first book, The Birth of Tragedy, which received little enthusiasm from his colleagues, and during 1873 he began to accumulate notes which would be published posthumously as Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks.

Between 1873 and 1876 came four separate long essays, published individually and then later as a part of Untimely Meditations, and these took the form of cultural critique, challenging the developing “German Culture” championed by Wagner and others. He felt such culture was a contradiction in terms, and contributed to his subsequent distancing from Wagner. With the publication in 1878 of Human, All Too Human, a book of aphorisms ranging from Metaphysics to morality to Religion, a new style of Nietzsche's work had become clear. However, in 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche resigned his position at Basel and was pensioned. Since childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him, including moments of shortsightedness that left him nearly blind, migraine headaches, and violent indigestion. The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which forced him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became impractical.

Independent Philosopher

Living on his pension from Basel along with aid from friends, Nietzsche travelled frequently to find climates more conducive to his health. For ten years, 1879 to 1889, he lived as an independent author in different cities, spending many summers in Sils Maria near St. Moritz in Switzerland, with many winters in the Italian cities of Genoa, Rapallo, and Turin, as well as Nice in France. Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, though he and his sister, Elisabeth, had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation.

However, in becoming independent, Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with Human, All Too Human in 1878, Nietzsche published one book or major section of a book each year until 1888, his last year of writing, then that year he completed five. His failing eyesight prompted him to explore the use of typewriters as a means of continuing to write.

During 1882 Nietzsche published the first part of The Gay Science, followed by a period when he pursued Miss Lou Andreas-Salomé for marriage, much to his sister's disapproval. While he was in love with Salomé, her views on sexuality may have been the reasons for her alienation from Nietzsche. As articulated in her 1898 novella Fenitschka, Salomé viewed the idea of sexual intercourse as prohibitive and marriage as a violation. Some have suggested this indicated sexual repression and neurosis, while others suggest homosexuality on the part of Salomé. Then, amidst bouts of illness, living in near-isolation, Nietzsche wrote the first part of Also Sprach Zarathustra in only ten days. By then, he was using large doses of opium and continued to have trouble sleeping. Having turned away from Wagner and even Schopenhauer, Nietzsche had few remaining friends, and with the new style of Zarathustra, his work became even more alienating, thus his books remained largely unpopular.

By 1886 Nietzsche even broke with his publisher, disgusted by his antisemitic opinions, which he felt had buried his own writings in an “anti-Semitic dump”, a movement Nietzsche felt should be “utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind”. Non-coincidentally, his sister had married an Anti-Semite and they moved to Paraguay to found a Germanic colony. He then published Beyond Good and Evil at his own expense, and acquired the publication rights for his earlier works. Over that next year he issued second editions of The Birth of Tragedy, Human, All Too Human, The Dawn of Day, and of The Gay Science, with new prefaces and placing the body of his work in a more coherent perspective. Thereafter, he saw his work more as a complete whole, and readership and interest followed.

In 1887 Nietzsche wrote the polemic On the Genealogy of Morals, and although he announced a new work with the title The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values, he instead used some of the passages to compose Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist in 1888. With improved health he spent the Summer in high spirits, and by Autumn his writings and letters began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and “fate”. While he possibly overestimated the increasing response to his writings at the time, he would have been thrilled to see how famous he had become after he was gone. He decided to write an autobiography, Ecce Homo. In its preface, which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate, he declared, “Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else.”

Man Incarnate

However, by 1889, Nietzsche's friends prevailed upon him to go to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of more serious mental illness and his mother transferred him to a clinic in Jena. From November 1889 to February 1890, the art historian Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition.^[2] Langbehn assumed progressively greater control of Nietzsche until his secretiveness discredited him. In March 1890, Nietzsche's mother removed him from the clinic and brought him to her home in Naumburg. During this process friends contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In February they issued a private edition of Nietzsche contra Wagner, but decided to withhold publishing The Antichrist and Ecce Homo because of their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and recognition were then enjoying a first real surge.^[3]

In 1893, Nietzsche's sister, Elisabeth, returned from the “Nueva Germania” in Paraguay following the suicide of her husband and upon studying Nietzsche's works piece by piece, she took control of their publication. After the death of their mother in 1897, Nietzsche lived in Weimar, where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed visitors to meet her uncommunicative brother. Nietzsche's mental illness was originally diagnosed as tertiary syphilis, and although most regard his breakdown as unrelated to his Philosophy, Georges Bataille wrote poetically about Nietzsche's condition, saying, ”'man incarnate' must also go mad”.^[4]

By 1898-1899 Nietzsche suffered at least two strokes which partially paralyzed him on his left side, leaving him unable to speak or walk. After contracting pneumonia in mid-August 1900, he suffered another stroke during the night of 24-25 August and died at about noon on 25 August.^[5] Elisabeth arranged for him to be buried beside his father at the church in Röcken, and his longtime friend and secretary Gast gave his funeral oration, proclaiming, “Holy be your name to all future generations!”^[6]

Philosophy

After Nietzsche's death, his sister, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, became the curator and editor of his manuscripts. She edited his unpublished writings to fit her German Nationalism views, often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and Nationalism. For example, she compiled The Will to Power on behalf of Nietzsche from his unpublished notebooks, publishing it posthumously in 1901. Because she arranged the book based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche's early outlines and perhaps took liberties with the material, the scholarly consensus has been that it does not reflect Nietzsche's intent. Worse still, through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with Fascism and Nazism. Twentieth Century scholars such as Walter Kaufmann, R. J. Hollingdale, Georges Bataille, and later Gilles Deleuze and others, defended Nietzsche against this interpretation. Fortunately, corrected editions of Nietzsche's writings were eventually made available, ushering in a greatly renewed popularity in the 1960s and following. Nietzsche has had a widespread and profound impact on Twentieth and Twenty-First Century thinkers across Philosophy, as well as in Art, Literature, Music, Poetry, Politics, and in popular culture, even if some of those influenced have misunderstood “the Superman”.

Indeed, because of Nietzsche's evocative style and provocative ideas, his Philosophy generates passionate reactions, and yet it is difficult to imagine where Georges Bataille, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, Jean Baudrillard, or many other philosophers would have found their inspiration if not from Friedrich Nietzsche, who himself found inspiration in so many before him.

The Apollonian and Dionysian

Nietzsche's oft-used two-fold philosophical concept was based on two figures in Ancient Greek Mythology, Apollo and Dionysus, locked in a dialectic relationship.^[7] The main theme in The Birth of Tragedy is that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian artistic impulses (Kunsttriebe) forms dramatic Art or Tragedy. This fusion had not been achieved for Nietzsche since the Ancient Greek tragedians. Apollo represents harmony, progress, clarity, logic, and the principle of individuation, whereas Dionysus represents disorder, intoxication, emotion, ecstasy, and unity. The Apollonian dreaming state, full of illusions, counter-acts the Dionysian state of intoxication, representing the liberation of instincts and dissolution of boundaries.^[8]

The Death of God and Nihilism

The famous statement, “God is Dead”, occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in The Gay Science), became one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of it, many commentators^[9] regard Nietzsche as an Atheist, while others suggest the statement might reflect a more subtle understanding of divinity. Nietzsche predicted that scientific developments and increasing secularization of Europe had “killed” the Abrahamic God in a metaphorical sense, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years. Nietzsche believed Christian moral doctrine was originally constructed to counteract Nihilism, providing traditional beliefs about Good and Evil, belief in God, and a framework with which one might claim to have Knowledge. “A nihilist,” he wrote, “is a man who judges that the real world ought not to be and that the world as it ought to do not exist. According to this view, our existence (action, suffering, willing, feeling) has no meaning: this 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos - an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists.” Nietzsche recognized in Arthur Schopenhauer's Pessimism, which Nietzsche referred to as Western Buddhism, the separating of oneself from Will and Desire to reduce suffering. In this “Will to Nothingness”, life turns away from itself as there is nothing of value to be found in the world.^[10]

The Eternal Return

Nietzsche proposed the idea of Eternal Return in a parable in Section 341 of The Gay Science, in the chapter “Of the Vision and the Riddle” in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, among other places. He posited that the Universe has been occurring and recurring, and will continue to recur, for an infinite number of times across infinite time and space. This eternal “recurrence to the same” is does not involved supernatural reincarnation, but is the physical return of beings in the same bodies. Nietzsche considered this as potentially “horrifying and paralyzing”, and said its burden is the “heaviest weight” imaginable (“das schwerste Gewicht”).^[11] A wish for the Eternal Return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of Life, a reaction to Schopenhauer's praise of denying the Will-to-Live, as Nietzsche saw it. To truly comprehend eternal recurrence, to come to peace with it, to embrace it, requires amor fati, a “love of fate”.^[12] As Martin Heidegger noted in his lectures on Nietzsche, Nietzsche's first mention of eternal recurrence is a hypothetical question, rather than a fact. According to Heidegger, “The way Nietzsche here patterns the first communication of the thought of the 'greatest burden' [of the Eternal Return] makes it clear that this 'thought of thoughts' is at the same time 'the most burdensome thought.'”^[13]

The Perspective of Self

Nietzsche felt the Death of God would eventually lead to the realization that there can never be a universal perspective on things, that the traditional idea of “Objective Truth” is incoherent.^[14] As it was with a whole line of “subjective” thinkers throughout the Enlightenment and Nineteenth Century, including variations in Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant, Fichte, Shelling, Hegel, and many others, Nietzsche rejected the idea of “Objective Reality”, arguing that Knowledge is contingent and conditional, relative to various fluid perspectives or interests.^[15] After Nietzsche, Max Weber and Martin Heidegger absorbed this and made it their own, not to mention the already-mentioned Bataille, Foucault, Deleuze, Derrida, Baudrillard, and many more. This shaped their philosophical and cultural endeavours as well as their political understanding. It is a constant reassessment of rules (ie. Logic, Scientific Method, etc.) according to the circumstances of individual perspectives. In Thus Spoke Zarathustra Nietzsche proclaimed that a table of values hangs above every great person. He pointed out that what is common among different peoples is the act of esteeming, of creating values, even if the values are different from one person to the next. What makes people great was not the content of their beliefs, but the act of valuing. “A thousand goals have there been so far”, says Zarathustra, “for there are a thousand peoples. Only the yoke for the thousand necks is still lacking: the one goal is lacking. Humanity still has no goal.”

The Übermensch

First of all, the way Americans understand the comic book and film character of “Superman” is simply not what Nietzsche was writing about in his work. It is unfortunate and entirely misses the point. Writing about Nihilism in Also Sprach Zarathustra, Nietzsche introduced an “Over Man” (Übermensch) as a solution to the problem of the Death of God and Nihilism - that is, a solution which is a human person or population beyond needing either God or Nihilism. Indeed, let's remove the male gender, forget the over/beyond/super misunderstandings, and call this new person one of a “New People”. These New People do not follow the “Morality” of the former common people, since that favours mediocrity, but they rise above the notions of Good and Evil, above herd mentality.^[16] In this way, Zarathustra wants an evolution of self-awareness and an overcoming of traditional views on Ethics and Justice which stem from the superstitious beliefs still deeply rooted or related to the notions of Gods or Morality.^[17] Unfortunately, and in part due to Nietzsche's sisters meddling in the publishing after his death, many attempted to incorporate their misunderstanding of this concept into their own twisted ideologies by means of using Nietzsche to support their claims of literal superiority over other people. This is not at all what Nietzsche meant or intended.

The Will to Power

Developing his theory of human behaviour, Nietzsche described the Will to Power (Wille zur Macht) as a dynamic of human exigency regarding Purpose and Drive. At the core of his theory was a rejection of Atomism - the idea that Matter is composed of stable, indivisible units such as atoms. Instead, he explained the qualities of matter as a result of an interplay of forces^[18]. The concept of the Will to Power is “the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and the quality that devolves into each force in this relation” revealing the Will to Power as “the principle of the synthesis of forces”.^[19] Of such forces Nietzsche said they could perhaps be viewed as a primitive form of the Will. Likewise, he rejected the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable Laws of Nature, positing instead that movement was governed by the power relations between bodies and forces.

Works

The Birth of Tragedy (1872)
On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense (1873)
Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (1873, unfinished; first published in 1923)
Untimely Meditations (1873–1876)
Human, All Too Human (1878–1880)
The Dawn (1881)
The Gay Science (1882)
Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–1885)
Beyond Good and Evil (1886)
On the Genealogy of Morals (1887)
The Case of Wagner (1888)
Twilight of the Idols (1888; first published in 1889)
The Antichrist (1888; first published in 1895)
Ecce Homo (1888; first published in 1908)
Nietzsche contra Wagner (1888; first published in 1889)
The Will to Power (various unpublished manuscripts edited by his sister, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, not recognized as a unified work afterward)

Scholarship by M.R.M. Parrott

Synthetic A Priori: Philosophical Interviews
Interviews, Discussion

©1998-1999 M.R.M. Parrott
First Published: 99,00,02,08,11

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The Empiricism of Subjectivity: Deleuze and Consciousness
Philosophical Monograph

©1996-1997 M.R.M. Parrott
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The Ethos of Modernity: Foucault and Enlightenment
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©1995-1996 M.R.M. Parrott
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The Generation of 'X': Philosophical Essays 1991-1995
Academic Papers

©1991-1995 M.R.M. Parrott
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References

Parrott, M.R.M. The Empiricism of Subjectivity (1997). This is one way Gilles Deleuze described it in his book, Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962), which is only a part of a wider and fuller understanding of “Eternal Return”..
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Secondary Literature

Book, Cate, Curtis, archive.org/details/friedrichnietzsc00curt, Friedrich Nietzsche, The Overlook Press, 2005, Woodstock, N.Y., registration.
Book, Čeika, Jonas, How to philosophise with a hammer and a sickle: Nietzsche and Marx for the twenty-first century, London, Repeater Books, 2021, 978-1913462499.
Book, Clark, Maudemarie, Nietzsche on Ethics and Politics, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015, 978-0199371846.
Book, Deleuze, Gilles, Gilles Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy, Nietzsche and Philosophy, Athlone Press, 2006, 978-0485112337, Tomlinson, Hugh, 1983.
Book, books.google.com/books?id=HBCsgS7k7lAC&q=Arnold+Zweig+Nietzsche&pg=PA185, Nietzsche and Jewish culture, Routledge, 1997, 978-0415095129, Golomb, Jacob, Google Books.
Book, Hayman, Ronald, Ronald Hayman, Nietzsche: A Critical Life, 1980, Oxford University Press.
Book, Hollingdale, R.J., R. J. Hollingdale, archive.org/details/nietzschemanhisp00holl/page/215, Nietzsche: The Man and His Philosophy, 2, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 978-0521640916.
Book, Nietzsche as a Scholar of Antiquity, 2014, Bloomsbury Academic, Jensen, Anthony K., London, Heit, Helmut.
Book, Kaufmann, Walter, Walter Kaufmann (philosopher), Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, 4, Princeton University Press, 1974, 978-0691019833, archive.org/details/nietzschephiloso00kauf.
Book, Lampert, Laurence, Laurence Lampert, Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of 'Thus Spoke Zarathustra', Yale University Press, 1986, 978-0300044300, New Haven, Conn.
Book, Löwith, Karl, Karl Löwith, From Hegel to Nietzsche: The Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Thought, Columbia University Press, 1964, 1991, 0231074999, archive.org/details/fromhegeltonietz0000lowi.
Encyclopedia, Friedrich Nietzsche, Encyclopædia Britannica, britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/414670/Friedrich-Nietzsche, Magnus, Bernd, 26 July 1999.
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Book, Roochnik, David, David Roochnik, Retrieving the Ancients: An Introduction to Greek Philosophy, 1, Malden, MA, Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
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Book, Schacht, Richard, Richard Schacht, Nietzsche, London, Routledge, 1983.
Book, Solomon, Robert C., Robert C. Solomon, Higgins, Kathleen Marie, Kathleen Higgins, What Nietzsche Really Said, New York, Schocken Books, 2000, 0805210946.
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Book, Young, Julian, Julian Young, Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 978-0521871174.

External Links

Entry on Nietzsche at Britannica.com
Nietzsche's brief autobiography
IEP, nietzsch, Friedrich Nietzsche, Wilkerson, Dale, 2009.

IEP, nietzsches-ethics, Nietzsche's Ethics, Kirwin, Claire.
IEP, niet-his, Nietzsche's Philosophy of History, Jensen, Anthony K.

SEP, nietzsche, Friedrich Nietzsche, Wicks, Robert, 14 November 2007.

SEP, nietzsche-moral-political, Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy, Leiter, Brian, Brian Leiter, 27 July 2007.

Nietzsche Source: Digital version of the German critical edition of the complete works and Digital facsimile edition of the entire Nietzsche estate
Lexido: Searchable Database index of Public Domain editions of all Nietzsche's major works {{Webarchive|url=web.archive.org/web/20210514094631/http://lexido.com/ |date=14 May 2021}}
www.weple.org/timeline.htmlids=14631,12007,12598,700,10671,9518,37304,95184,&title=8%20German%20Philosophers" title="web.archive.org/web/20110421040017/www.weple.org/timeline.htmlids=14631,12007,12598,700,10671,9518,37304,95184,&title=8%20German%20Philosophers" target="new">Timeline of German Philosophers
Walter Kaufmann 1960 Prof. Nietzsche and the Crisis in Philosophy (audio)
Journal, Kierans, Kenneth, 2010, On the Unity of Nietzsche's Philosophy, www2.swgc.mun.ca/animus/Articles/Volume%2014/9_Kierans.pdf, dead, Animus, 14, 1209-0689, web.archive.org/web/20111003192327/http://www2.swgc.mun.ca/animus/Articles/Volume%2014/9_Kierans.pdf, 3 October 2011, 17 August 2011.
H.L. Mencken Nietzsche's Letters in English
Burkhart Brückner, Robin Pape: Biography of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche in: [biapsy.de/index.php/en/ Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY).
Rick Roderick (1991) Nietzsche and the Postmodern Condition (1991) Video Lectures

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