{{short description|none}}{{ProgLangCompare}}Programming languages are used for controlling the behavior of a machine (often a computer). Like natural languages, programming languages follow rules for syntax and semantics.There are thousands of programming languagesAs of May 2006 Diarmuid Pigott's Encyclopedia of Computer Languages {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217weblink |date=2011-02-20}} hosted at Murdoch University, Australia lists 8512 computer languages. and new ones are created every year. Few languages ever become sufficiently popular that they are used by more than a few people, but professional programmers may use dozens of languages in a career.Most programming languages are not standardized by an international (or national) standard, even widely used ones, such as Perl or Standard ML (despite the name). Notable standardized programming languages include ALGOL, C, C++, JavaScript (under the name ECMAScript), Smalltalk, Prolog, Common Lisp, Scheme (IEEE standard), ISLISP, Ada, Fortran, COBOL, SQL, and XQuery.__TOC__{{-}}

General comparison

The following table compares general and technical information for a selection of commonly used programming languages. See the individual languages' articles for further information.{{sticky header}}{|class="wikitable sortable sticky-header" style="text-align:center;"! scope="col" | Language! scope="col" | Original purpose! scope="col" | Imperative! scope="col" | Object-oriented! scope="col" | Functional! scope="col" | Procedural! scope="col" | Generic! scope="col" | Reflective! scope="col" | Other paradigms! scope="col" | Standardized?

! scope="row" | (1C:Enterprise programming language)

Application software development>Application, Rapid application development

, business, General-purpose programming language>general, Web development

, Mobile app development>mobile| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Object-based, Prototype-based programming| {{no}}

! scope="row" | ActionScript| Application, client-side, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| prototype-based

ECMAScript>ActionScript 1.0 with ES3, ActionScript 2.0 with ES3 and partial ES4 draft, ActionScript 3.0 with ES4 draft, ActionScript 3.0 with E4X

! scope="row" | Ada

Embedded system>embedded, Real-time computing

, System programming language>system| {{yes}}| {{yes}}Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions| {{no}}| {{yes}}Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms| {{yes}}Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units| {{no}}

concurrent programming language>Concurrent,Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization distributed Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems

GOST 27831-88HTTP://VAK.RU/LIB/EXE/FETCH.PHP/BOOK/GOST/PDF/GOST-27831-88.PDF

ACCESS-DATE=2008-08-09

ARCHIVE-DATE=2017-03-30, dead,

! scope="row" | Aldor

Domain-specific language>domain-specific, symbolic computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | ALGOL 58| Application| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | ALGOL 60| Application| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1960, IFIP WG 2.1, ISOISO 1538:1984

! scope="row" | ALGOL 68| Application| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| Concurrent

IFIP WG 2.1, GOST 27974-88,HTTP://VAK.RU/LIB/EXE/FETCH.PHP/BOOK/GOST/PDF/GOST-27974-88.PDF

ACCESS-DATE=2008-08-09

ARCHIVE-DATE=2017-03-24, dead,

! scope="row" | Ateji PX| Parallel application| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| pi calculus| {{no}}

! scope="row" | APL| Application, data processing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

array programming>Array-oriented, tacit| {{yes}}1989, ISO

! scope="row" | Assembly language| General| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Any, syntax is usually highly specific, related to the target processor| {{yes}}1985 IEEE 694-1985IEEE 694-1985

! scope="row" | AutoHotkey

Macro (computer science)#Application macros and scripting>macros), highly domain-specific| {{yes}}| {{yes}}Objects - Definition & Usage| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | AutoIt| GUI automation (macros), highly domain-specific| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Ballerina| Integration, agile, server-side, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Concurrent, transactional, statically and strongly typed, diagrammaticâ€“visual

De facto}}standard via Ballerina Language SpecificationHTTPS://BALLERINA.IO/RES/BALLERINA-LANGUAGE-SPECIFICATION-WD-2015-05-01.PDF >PUBLISHER=WSO2

DATE=2018-05-01

ARCHIVE-DATE=2018-05-04

URL-STATUS=DEAD,

! scope="row" | Bash

Shell (computing)>Shell, scripting| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}|

Optionally}}POSIX.2 POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities, Command Interpreter (IEEE Std 1003.2-1992.)

! scope="row" | BASIC| Application, education| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1983, ANSI, ISO, ECMA

! scope="row" | BeanShell| Application, scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}|

Java Community Process>JCPJSR 274

! scope="row" | BLISS| System| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | BlitzMax| Application, game| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Boo| Application, game scripting| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | C| Application, system,bell-labs.com general purpose, low-level operations| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}|

ANSI C>ANSI C89, ISO/IEC C90, ISO/IEC C95, ISO/IEC C99, ISO/IEC C11, ISO/IEC C17, ISO/IEC C2xANSI C89, ISO/IEC 9899:1990, 1999, 2011, 2018

! scope="row" | C++| Application, system| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}|

C++#Standardization>ISO/IEC C++98, ISO/IEC C++03, ISO/IEC C++11, ISO/IEC C++14, ISO/IEC C++17, ISO/IEC C++20, ISO/IEC C++23ISO/IEC 14882:1998, 2003, 2011, 2014, 2017, 2020

! scope="row" | C#| Application, RAD, business, client-side, general, server-side, web, game programming| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}Codeproject.com: Functional Programming in C# 3.0 using Lambda Expression| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Structured, concurrent| {{yes}}2000, ECMA, ISOECMA-334; ISO/IEC 23270:2006

! scope="row" | Clarion| General, business, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}Softvelocity.com| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | Clean| General| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Clojure| General| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | CLU| General| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | COBOL| Application, business| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1968 ANSI X3.23, 1974, 1985; ISO/IEC 1989:1985, 2002, 2014

! scope="row" | Cobra| Application, business, general, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | ColdFusion (CFML)| Web| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Common Lisp| General| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

Array-oriented, Macro (computer science)#Syntactic macros>syntactic macros, multiple dispatch, concurrent| {{yes}}1994, ANSI

! scope="row" | COMAL 80| Education| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Crystal| General purpose| {{yes}}

WEBSITE=GITHUB, 2 November 2021, | {{yes}}| {{yes}}

WEBSITE=CRYSTAL-LANG.ORG, 13 April 2024, | {{no}}

ARCHIVE-URL=

ACCESS-DATE=2024-04-02, crystal-lang.org, | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Curry| Application| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| lazy evaluation, non-determinism

De facto}} standard via Curry Language Report

! scope="row" | Cython| Application, general, numerical computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}

aspect-oriented programming>Aspect-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | D| Application, system| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Generative, concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Dart

Internet of things>IoT| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| Structured| {{yes}}ECMA-408 standard

! scope="row" | Delphi, Object Pascal| General purpose| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| | ?

! scope="row" | Dylan| Application| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Eiffel| General, application, business, client-side, server-side, web (EWF)| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

Basic Eiffel language mechanisms(Closure (computer programming)#Inline agents .28Eiffel.29:>Closure (computer programming))| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}} Erl-G| Distributed SCOOP, Void-safe| {{yes}}2005, ECMA, ISOECMA-367; ISO/IEC 25436:2006

! scope="row" | ELAN| Education| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

Structured programming>Structured, stepwise refinement| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Elixir

Distributed computing>distributed| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent, distributed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Erlang| Application, distributed| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent, distributed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Euphoria| Application| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Factor| General| {{yes}}| {{no}}

Can be viewed as}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

stack-oriented programming>Stack-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | FP| | {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | F#| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Forth| General| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Stack-oriented| {{yes}}1994, ANSI

! scope="row" | Fortran| Application, numerical computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| Array-based, vectorized, concurrent, native distributed/shared-memory parallelism| {{yes}}1966, ANSI 66, ANSI 77, MIL-STD-1753, ISO 90, ISO 95, ISO 2003, ISO/IEC 1539-1:2010 (2008), ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG5 N2145 (2018)

! scope="row" | FreeBASIC| Application, numerical computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Gambas| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Game Maker Language| Application, game programming| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | GLBasic| Application, games| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Simple object-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Go| Application, web, server-side| {{yes}}

Can be viewed as}}The Go Programming Language (FAQ)| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent

De facto}} standard via Go Language Specification

! scope="row" | Gosu| Application, general, scripting, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | GraphTalk| Application| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Logic| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Groovy| Application, general, scripting, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Meta-programming

In progress}}, JCP JSR 241

! scope="row" | Harbour| Application, business, data processing, general, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

declarative programming>Declarative| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Haskell| Application| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| Lazy evaluation

ACCESS-DATE=2011-12-07, Most Haskell implementations extend the Haskell 2010 standard.

! scope="row" | Haxe| Application, general, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | HyperTalk| Application, RAD, general| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Weakly typed| {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | Io| Application, host-driven scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | IPL| General| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | ISLISP| General| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}|

International Organization for Standardization>ISO

! scope="row" | J| Application, data processing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

function-level programming>function-level, tacit, concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | JADE| Application, distributed| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Java| Application, business, client-side, general, mobile development, server-side, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent

De facto}} standard via Java Language Specification

! scope="row" | JavaScript| Client-side, server-side, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| prototype-based| {{yes}}1997-2022, ECMA-262

! scope="row" | Joy| Research| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Stack-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | jq| "awk for JSON"| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

Tacit programming>Tacit, Backtracking, Generator (computer programming)

, Parsing expression grammar>PEG| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Julia| General, technical computing| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Multiple dispatch, meta, scalar and array-oriented, parallel, concurrent, distributed ("cloud")| {{no}}

! scope="row" | K| Data processing, business| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Array-oriented, tacit| {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | Kotlin| Application, mobile development, server-side, client-side, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

DATE=2 JULY 2014, As a first peek into the future reflective capabilities of Kotlin, you can now access properties as first-class objects in Kotlin, |

De facto}} standard via Kotlin Language Specification

! scope="row" | Ksh

Shell (computing)>Shell, scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Several variants, custom programmable, dynamic loadable modules

Optionally}}POSIX.2 POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities, Command Interpreter (IEEE Std 1003.2-1992.)

! scope="row" | LabVIEW (G)| Application, industrial instrumentation-automation| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

dataflow programming>Dataflow, visual| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Lisp| General| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | LiveCode| Application, RAD, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Weakly typed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Logtalk| Artificial intelligence, application| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Logic| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Linden Scripting Language (LSL)| Virtual worlds content scripting and animation| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Scripts exist in in-world objects

De facto}} reference is the Second Life implementation of LSL.Halcyon (Inworldz) and Open Sims propose compatible implementations with additional functions.

! scope="row" | Lua| Application, embedded scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}}Lua does not have explicit "object" type (more general type of "table" is used for object definition), but does have explicit syntax for object method calling| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Aspect-oriented, prototype-based

virtual machine>VM implementations and compilers such as Kahlua and LLVM-Lua.

! scope="row" | Maple| Symbolic computation, numerical computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Distributed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Mathematica

Symbolic language (programming)>Symbolic language| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Logic, distributed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | MATLAB| Highly domain-specific, numerical computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Modula-2| Application, system| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1996, ISOISO/IEC 10514-1:1996

! scope="row" | Modula-3| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | MUMPS (M)| General, application, databases| {{yes}}

Approved for next Standard}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}

Partially}} Thru Indirection and Xecute| {{yes}}

Concurrent computing>Concurrent, multi-user, NoSQL, transaction processing| {{yes}}1977 ANSI, 1995, ISO 2020

! scope="row" | Nim| Application, general, web, scripting, system| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

Metaprogramming>meta| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Oberon| Application, system| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Object Pascal| Application, general, mobile app, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Structured| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Objective-C| Application, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | OCaml| Application, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Occam| General| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

process-oriented programming>process-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Opa| Web applications| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| Distributed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | OpenLisp| General, Embedded Lisp Engine| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}|

Optionally}} ISLISP

! scope="row" | Oxygene| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Oz-Mozart| Application, distribution, education| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Concurrent, logic| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Pascal| Application, education| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1983, ISOISO 7185

! scope="row" | Perl| Application, scripting, text processing, Web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | PHP| Server-side, web application, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5),| {{yes}}PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}|

De facto}} standard via language specification and Requests for Comments (RFCs)

! scope="row" | PL/I| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1969, ECMA-50 (1976)

! scope="row" | Plus| Application, system development| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | PostScript| Graphics, page description| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

Concatenative programming language>Concatenative, stack-oriented

De facto}} standard via the PostScript Reference ManualHTTPS://WWW.ADOBE.COM/PRODUCTS/POSTSCRIPT/PDFS/PLRM.PDF >TITLE=POSTSCRIPT LANGUAGE REFERENCE MANUAL

ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20170218093716/HTTPS://WWW.ADOBE.COM/PRODUCTS/POSTSCRIPT/PDFS/PLRM.PDF

URL-STATUS=DEAD,

! scope="row" | PowerShell| Administration, application, general, scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}

pipeline programming>Pipeline| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Prolog| Application, artificial intelligence| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Logic, declarative| {{yes}}1995, ISO/IEC 13211-1:1995, TC1 2007, TC2 2012, TC3 2017

! scope="row" | PureBasic| Application| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Python| Application, general, web, scripting, artificial intelligence, scientific computing| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Aspect-oriented

De facto}} standard via Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs)

! scope="row" | R| Application, statistics| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Racket| Education, general, scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}

Modular programming>Modular, logic, meta| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Raku| Scripting, text processing, glue| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Aspect-oriented, array, lazy evaluation, multiple dispatch, metaprogramming| {{no}}

! scope="row" | REALbasic| Application| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | Rebol| Distributed| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}

dialecting>Dialected| {{no}}

! scope="row" | REXX| Scripting| {{yes}}| {{yes}} (NetRexx and Object REXX dialects)| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1996 (ANSI X3.274-1996)

! scope="row" | RPG| Application, system| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Ring| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

natural-language programming>natural-language| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Ruby| Application, scripting, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Aspect-oriented| {{yes}}2011(JIS X 3017), 2012(ISO/IEC 30170)

! scope="row" | Rust| Application, server-side, system, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}Is Rust an Object-Oriented Programming Language?| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

LAST2=NICHOLS

TITLE=THE RUST PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

CHAPTER=MACROS,weblink | Concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | S| Application, statistics| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | S-Lang| Application, numerical, scripting| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Scala| Application, general, parallel, distributed, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Data-oriented programming, metaprogramming

De facto}} standard via Scala Language Specification (SLS)

! scope="row" | Scheme| Education, general| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| meta, extensible-syntax

De facto}}1975-2013, R0RS, R1RS, R2RS, R3RS, R4RS, R5RS, R6RS, R7RS Small Edition R3RS, R4RS, R5RS, R6RS, R7RS Small Edition R0RS, R1RS, R2RS

! scope="row" | Seed7| Application, general, scripting, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Multi-paradigm, extensible, structured| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Simula| Education, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| discrete event simulation, multi-threaded (quasi-parallel) program execution| {{yes}}1968

! scope="row" | Small Basic| Application, education, games| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

component-oriented programming>Component-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Smalltalk| Application, general, business, artificial intelligence, education, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent, declarative| {{yes}}1998, ANSI

! scope="row" | SNOBOL| Text processing| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{unknown}}

! scope="row" | Standard ML| Application| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| | {{yes}}1997, SML '97SMLNJ.org

! scope="row" | Swift| Application, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}

Protocol (object-oriented programming)>protocol-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Tcl| Application, scripting, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | V (Vlang)| Application, general, system, game, web, server-side| {{yes}}

Can be viewed as}}

Can be viewed as}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Visual Basic| Application, RAD, education, business, general, (Includes VBA), office automation| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| Component-oriented| {{no}}

! scope="row" | {{nowrap|Visual Basic .NET}}| Application, RAD, education, web, business, general| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Structured, concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Visual FoxPro| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Data-centric, logic| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Visual Prolog| Application| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Declarative, logic| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Wolfram Language| Symbolic language| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Logic, distributed| {{no}}

! scope="row" | XL| | {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| concept programming| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Xojo| Application, RAD, general, web| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | XPath/XQuery| Databases, data processing, scripting| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}

Tree (data structure)>Tree-oriented| {{yes}}1999 W3C XPath 1, 2010 W3C XQuery 1, 2014 W3C XPath/XQuery 3.0

! scope="row" | Zeek| Domain-specific, application| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| | {{no}}

! scope="row" | Zig| Application, general, system| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| {{yes}}| Concurrent| {{no}}

! scope="row" | Zsh

Shell (computing)>Shell, scripting| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| {{yes}}| {{no}}| {{no}}| Loadable modules

Optionally}}POSIX.2 POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities, Command Interpreter (IEEE Std 1003.2-1992.)

Type systems

Failsafe I/O and system calls

Most programming languages will print an error message or throw an exception if an input/output operation or other system call (e.g., chmod, kill) fails, unless the programmer has explicitly arranged for different handling of these events. Thus, these languages fail safely in this regard.Some (mostly older) languages require that programmers explicitly add checks for these kinds of errors. Psychologically, different cognitive biases (e.g., optimism bias) may affect novices and experts alike and lead them to skip these checks. This can lead to erroneous behavior.Failsafe I/O is a feature of (1C:Enterprise programming language|1C:Enterprise), Ada (exceptions), ALGOL (exceptions or return value depending on function), Ballerina, C#, Common Lisp ("conditions and restarts" system), Curry, D (throwing on failure),WEB,weblink STD.stdio - D Programming Language, Erlang, Fortran, Go (unless result explicitly ignored), Gosu, Harbour, Haskell, ISLISP, Java, Julia, Kotlin, LabVIEW, Mathematica, Objective-C (exceptions), OCaml (exceptions), OpenLisp, PHP, Python, Raku, Rebol, Rexx (with optional signal on... trap handling), Ring, Ruby, Rust (unless result explicitly ignored), Scala,Scala runs on the Java Virtual Machine from which it inherits the runtime exception handling. Smalltalk, Standard ML {{citation needed|date=February 2011}}, Swift â‰¥ 2.0 (exceptions), Tcl, Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET, Visual Prolog, Wolfram Language, Xojo, XPath/XQuery (exceptions), and Zeek.No Failsafe I/O:AutoHotkey (global ErrorLevel must be explicitly checked), C,gcc can warn on unchecked errno. Newer versions of Visual Studio usually throw exceptions on failed I/O when using stdio. COBOL, Eiffel (it actually depends on the library and it is not defined by the language), GLBasic (will generally cause program to crash), RPG, Lua (some functions do not warn or throw exceptions), and Perl.Considerable error checking can be enabled optionally, but by default Perl is not failsafe.Some I/O checking is built in C++ (STL iostreams throw on failure but C APIs like stdio or POSIX do not) and Object Pascal, in Bashset -e enables termination if any unchecked exit status is nonzero. it is optional.">

Expressiveness{|class"wikitable sortable" style"float:right;"

! scope="col" | Language! scope="col" | Statements ratioData from BOOK, McConnell, Steve, 30 November 2009,weblink Code Complete, 100, Microsoft Press, 9780735636972, The Statements ratio column "shows typical ratios of source statements in several high-level languages to the equivalent code in C. A higher ratio means that each line of code in the language listed accomplishes more than does each line of code in C.! scope="col" | Lines ratioThe ratio of line count tests won by each language to the number won by C when using the Compare to feature at WEB,weblink Code Length Measured in 14 Languages, McLoone, Jon, November 14, 2012,weblink 2012-11-19, C gcc was used for C, C++ g++ was used for C++, FORTRAN G95 was used for FORTRAN, Java JDK Server was used for Java, and Smalltalk GST was used for Smalltalk.

| 1

| 0.8

| 1.5

| 6

| 6.25

| 6.5

The literature on programming languages contains an abundance of informal claims about their relative expressive power, but there is no framework for formalizing such statements nor for deriving interesting consequences.CONFERENCE, 10.1.1.51.4656, On the Expressive Power of Programming Languages, Matthias, Felleisen, ESOP '90 3rd European Symposium on Programming, This table provides two measures of expressiveness from two different sources. An additional measure of expressiveness, in GZip bytes, can be found on the Computer Language Benchmarks Game.WEB,weblink How programs are measured, Computer Language Benchmarks Game, 2018-05-29, {{-}}

Benchmarks

(File:Barplot language speeds (Benchmarks Game Mandelbrot).svg|thumb|Barplot of log-time to produce a 1600Â² MandelbrotBOOK, Mandelbrot, Benoit B., The fractal geometry of nature, 1982, 0-7167-1186-9, Revised, San Francisco, 7876824, as reported in The Benchmarks GameWEB, Mandelbrot, Computer Language Benchmarks Game,weblink 2021-07-09, )Benchmarks are designed to mimic a particular type of workload on a component or system. The computer programs used for compiling some of the benchmark data in this section may not have been fully optimized, and the relevance of the data is disputed. The most accurate benchmarks are those that are customized to your particular situation. Other people's benchmark data may have some value to others, but proper interpretation brings many challenges. The Computer Language Benchmarks Game site warns against over-generalizing from benchmark data, but contains a large number of micro-benchmarks of reader-contributed code snippets, with an interface that generates various charts and tables comparing specific programming languages and types of tests.WEB,weblink The Ultimate Benchmark, The Computer Language Benchmarks Game, 2018-05-29,

Timeline of specific language comparisons

1974 â€“ Comparative Notes on Algol 68 and PL/IJOURNAL, Valentine, S. H., November 1974, Comparative Notes on Algol 68 and PL/I, The Computer Journal, 17, 4, 325â€“331, 10.1093/comjnl/17.4.325, free, â€“ S. H. Valentine â€“ November 1974
1976 â€“ Evaluation of ALGOL 68, JOVIAL J3B, Pascal, Simula 67, and TACPOL Versus TINMAN â€“ Requirements for a Common High Order Programming Language.
1977 â€“ A comparison of PASCAL and ALGOL 68WEB,weblink Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, â€“ Andrew S. Tanenbaum â€“ June 1977.
1993 â€“ Five Little Languages and How They Grew â€“ BLISS, Pascal, ALGOL 68, BCPL & C â€“ Dennis M. Ritchie â€“ April 1993.
2009 â€“ On Go â€“ oh, go on â€“ How well will Google's Go stand up against Brand X programming language? â€“ David Given â€“ November 2009

GetWiki

Comparison of programming languages

General comparison

Type systems

Failsafe I/O and system calls

Expressiveness{|class"wikitable sortable" style"float:right;"

Benchmarks

Timeline of specific language comparisons

See also

References

Further reading