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Chinese Civil War
please note:
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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{{short description|Series of conflicts within China, 1927 – circa 1950}}{{About|the conflict between the Nationalists and the Communists}}{{pp-pc1|small=yes}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| factoids | |
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- 1 August 1927BOOK, China at War: An Encyclopedia, 2012, 295,weblink – 22 December 1936WEB,weblink China, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Encyclopædia Britannica, 15 November 2012, {{indent|5}}{{small|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days |month1 = 08 |day1 = 01 |year1 = 1927 |month2 = 12 |day2 = 22 |year2 = 1936 }})}}
- 31 March 1946 – 7 August 1950{{NoteTag|The conflict did not have an official end date. However, historians generally agree that the war subsided after the People's Republic of China took the Mosquito Tail Islet, the last island held by the Republic of China in the Wanshan Archipelago.BOOK, Westad, Odd, Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950, 2003, Stanford University Press, 978-0-8047-4484-3, 305,weblink }}{{indent|5}}{{small|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days |month1 = 03 |day1 = 31 |year1 = 1946 |month2 = 08 |day2 = 07 |year2 = 1950 }})}} (The Kuomintang Islamic insurgency against the People's Republic of China's rule continued in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang, Yunnan until 1958.)
- Communist Party of China takeover of mainland China and Hainan
- People's Republic of China established in mainland China
- Government of the Republic of China relocated to Taiwan
- Major combat ended, but no armistice or peace treaty signed.
- Small pockets of insurgency continued through the 1960s.| combatant1 = 1927–37
- {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} Kuomintang
- {{Flagicon image|Republic of China Army Flag.svg}} National Revolutionary Army
- {{Flagicon image|ä¸åœ‹å·¥è¾²ç´…è»è»æ——.svg}} Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army
- {{Flagicon image|National Flag of Chinese Soviet Republic.svg}} Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–37)
- {{Flagicon image|Chinese soviet flag.svg}} Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet (1931–34)
- {{Flag|Soviet Union|1936{edih}
- (File:Comintern_Logo.svg|25px) Communist International}}| combatant1a = 1946–49
- {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} Kuomintang
- {{Flagicon image|Republic of China Army Flag.svg}} ROC Armed Forces
- {{Flag|United States|1912{edih}
- Pre-PLA troops and militia
- {{Flagicon image|People's Liberation Army Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg}} People's Liberation Army
- {{Flag|Soviet Union|1936{edih}
- {{Flag|North Korea}}}}| combatant1b = 1949–61
- {{Flagicon image|Republic of China Army Flag.svg}} ROC Armed Forces
- {{Flagicon image|Republic of China Army Flag.svg}} Nationalist loyalist guerrillas, militias and regular troops left in Mainland China and Burma
- {{Flag|United States|1912{edih}
- {{Flagicon image|Flag of Thailand (TIS 982 draft standard).svg|size=23px}} Thailand
- {{Flagicon image|People's Liberation Army Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg}} People's Liberation Army
- {{Flag|Soviet Union|1936{edih}
- {{Flagdeco|Burma|1948}} Burma
- 4,300,000 (June 1946)Èëãñèõ±¨BOOK, China's Bitter Victory: The War With Japan, 1937–1945,weblink M. E. Sharpe publishing, Hsiung, James C., 1992, New York, 1-56324-246-X,
- 3,650,000 (June 1948)
- 1,490,000 (June 1949)| strength2 =
- 1,200,000 (July 1945)
- 2,800,000 (June 1948)
- 4,000,000 (June 1949)
- Above one estimate 1945-49 set for combatants, with overall up to 6 million (including civilians)
- Early phase, 1928–37: c. 7 million (including civiliansweblink
- Concluding phase, 1945–49: c. 2.5 million (including civiliansweblink
| factoids | |
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Background
{{History of the Republic of China}}Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty in the aftermath of the Xinhai Revolution, China fell into a brief period of civil war before Yuan Shikai assumed the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China. The administration became known as the Beiyang Government, with its capital in Peking. Yuan Shikai was frustrated in a short-lived attempt to restore monarchy in China, with himself as the Hongxian Emperor. After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the following years were characterized by the power struggle between different cliques in the former Beiyang Army. In the meantime, the Kuomintang, led by Sun Yat-sen, created a new government in Guangzhou to resist the rule of Beiyang Government through a series of movements.Sun's efforts to obtain aid from the several countries were ignored, thus he turned to the Soviet Union in 1921. For political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established Communist Party of China, which would eventually found the People's Republic of China. Thus the struggle for power in China began between the KMT and the CPC.In 1923, a joint statement by Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance to China's unification.March, G. Patrick. Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific. [1996] (1996). Greenwood Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-275-95566-4}}. pg 205. The Sun-Joffe Manifesto was a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern, KMT and CPC. Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPC joined the KMT to form the First United Front.In 1923, Sun sent Chiang Kai-shek, one of his lieutenants from his Tongmenghui days, for several months of military and political study in the Soviet capital Moscow.Chang, H.H. Chang. [2007] (2007). Chiang Kai Shek – Asia's Man of Destiny. {{ISBN|1-4067-5818-3}}. pg 126 By 1924, Chiang became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy, and rose to prominence as Sun's successor as head of the KMT.The Soviets provided the academy with much educational material, organization and equipment, including munitions. They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization. With this aid, Sun was able to raise a dedicated "army of the party," with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CPC members were also present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including Zhou Enlai, who was made a political instructor.Ho, Alfred K. Ho, Alfred Kuo-liang. [2004] (2004). China's Reforms and Reformers. Greenwood Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-275-96080-3}}. pg 7.Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis. The CPC itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925.Fairbank, John King. [1994] (1994). China: A New History. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-11673-9}}. As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CPC. The CPC then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting.Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided.Throughout this time the Soviet Union had a large impact on the Communist Party of China. They sent money and spies to support the Chinese Communist Party. Without their support the communist party would have failed. There are documents showing of other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, but they all failed without support from the Soviet Union.BOOK, The man who changed China: the life and legacy of Jiang Zemin, Kuhn, Robert, Crown Publishers, 2005,Northern Expedition and KMT-CPC split
In early 1927, the KMT-CPC rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CPC and the left wing of the KMT had decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to Wuhan, where communist influence was strong. However, Chiang and Li Zongren, whose armies defeated warlord Sun Chuanfang, moved eastward toward Jiangxi. The leftists rejected Chiang's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to Mao Zedong, Chiang's tolerance of the CPC in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.Zedong, Mao. Thompson, Roger R. [1990] (1990). Report from Xunwu. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-2182-3}}.On April 7, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On April 12, in Shanghai, many Communist members in the KMT were purged through hundreds of arrests and executionsBrune, Lester H. Dean Burns, Richard Dean Burns. [2003] (2003). Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-93914-3}}. on the orders of General Bai Chongxi. The CPC referred to this as the April 12 Incident or Shanghai Massacre.Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-5001-7}}. This incident widened the rift between Chiang and Wang Jingwei, another warlord who controlled the city of Wuhan.Eventually, the left wing of the KMT also expelled CPC members from the Wuhan government, which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai-shek. The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928.Guo, Xuezhi. [2002] (2002). The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-275-97259-3}}. Soon, most of eastern China was under the control of the Nanjing central government, which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. The KMT government announced, in conformity with Sun Yat-sen, the formula for the three stages of revolution: military unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy.Theodore De Bary, William. Bloom, Irene. Chan, Wing-tsit. Adler, Joseph. Lufrano Richard. Lufrano, John. [1999] (1999). Sources of Chinese Tradition. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-10938-5}}. pg 328.Communist insurgency (1927–1937)
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Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
(File:Situation at the End of World War Two.PNG|thumb|Japanese occupation (red) of eastern China near the end of the war, and Communist bases (striped))During Japan's invasion and occupation of Manchuria Chiang Kai-shek, who saw the CPC as a greater threat, refused to ally with them to fight against the Imperial Japanese Army. Chiang preferred to unite China by eliminating the warlords and CPC forces first. He believed that he was still too weak to launch an offensive to chase out Japan and that China needed time for a military build-up. Only after unification would it be possible for the KMT to mobilize a war against Japan. So he would rather ignore the discontent and anger among Chinese people at his policy of compromise with the Japanese, and ordered KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to carry out suppression of the CPC; however, their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles with the Red Army.weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20121207115613weblink">refOn 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CPC. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident.Ye, Zhaoyan Ye, Berry, Michael. [2003] (2003). Nanjing 1937: A Love Story. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-12754-5}}. Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fighting against the Japanese. In 1937 Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China and its well-equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China.The alliance of CPC and KMT was in name only.Buss, Claude Albert. [1972] (1972). Stanford Alumni Association. The People's Republic of China and Richard Nixon. United States. Unlike the KMT forces, CPC troops shunned conventional warfare and instead engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese. The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CPC and KMT during World War II was at best minimal. In the midst of the Second United Front, the CPC and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in "Free China" (i.e., areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese puppet governments such as Manchukuo and the Reorganized National Government of China).The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. Chiang demanded in December 1940 that the CPC's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces, due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. The following year they were ambushed by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths.Schoppa, R. Keith. [2000] (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-11276-9}}. It also ended the Second United Front, which had been formed earlier to fight the Japanese.As clashes between the CPC and KMT intensified, countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the New Fourth Army incident, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent special envoy Lauchlin Currie to talk with Chiang Kai-shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties, with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese. The Soviet Union, allied more closely with the CPC, sent an imperative telegram to Mao in 1941, warning that civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military. Due to the international community's efforts, there was a temporary and superficial peace. Chiang attacked the CPC in 1943 with the propaganda piece China's Destiny, which questioned the CPC's power after the war, while the CPC strongly opposed Chiang's leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image. Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves.Chen, Jian. [2001] (2001). Mao's China and the Cold War. The University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN|0-807-84932-4}}.In general, developments in the Second Sino-Japanese War were to the advantage of the CPC, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese-occupied areas. However, the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns, since it was the legal Chinese government, and this proved costly to Chiang Kai-shek and his troops. Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT, Operation Ichi-Go, in 1944; this resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang's forces.Lary, Diana. [2007] (2007). China's Republic. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-84256-5}}. The CPC also suffered fewer losses through its guerrilla tactics. By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million members. About one hundred million people lived in CPC-controlled zones.Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)
(File:é‡æ…¶æœƒè«‡ 蔣介石與毛澤æ±.jpg|thumb|left|Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong met in Chongqing in 1945.)Under the terms of the Japanese unconditional surrender dictated by the United States, Japanese troops were ordered to surrender to KMT troops and not to the CPC, which was present in some of the occupied areas.Zarrow, Peter Gue. [2005] (2005). China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-36447-7}}. p. 338. In Manchuria, however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Japanese troops to remain at their post to receive the Kuomintang and not surrender their arms to the Communists.The first post-war peace negotiation was attended by both Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong in Chongqing from 28 August 1945, and concluded on 10 October 1945 with the signing of the Double Tenth Agreement.Xu, Guangqiu. [2001] (2001). War Wings: The United States and Chinese Military Aviation, 1929–1949. Greenwood Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-313-32004-7}}. p. 201. Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results. Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full-scale confrontations between the CPC and Chiang's troops were temporarily avoided.File:Shangtang.jpg|thumb|Shangdang CampaignShangdang CampaignIn the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation to attack the Japanese 2 million strong Kwantung Army in Manchuria and along the Chinese-Mongolian border.Bright, Richard Carl. [2007] (2007). Pain and Purpose in the Pacific: True Reports of War. Trafford Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4251-2544-1}}. This operation destroyed the fighting capability of Japan's Kwantung Army in just 3 weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai-shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CPC takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure.Lilley, James. China hands : nine decades of adventure, espionage, and diplomacy in Asia , PublicAffairs, New York, 2004 He therefore made a deal with the Russians to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best-trained men and modern material into the region; however, the Russians refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory. KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CPC. On 15 November 1945, an offensive began with the intent of preventing the CPC from strengthening its already strong base.BOOK, Jessup, John E., A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985, 1989, Greenwood Press, New York, 0-313-24308-5, The Soviets spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war-ravaged country.Yang Kuisong, a Chinese historian, said that in 1945–46, during the Soviet Red Army Manchurian campaign, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin commanded Marshal Rodion Malinovsky to give Mao Zedong most Imperial Japanese Army weapons that were captured.WEB,weblink zh:æ¨å¥Žæ¾ã€Šè¯»å²æ±‚实》：è‹è”给了林彪东北野战军多少现代æ¦å™¨, Sina Corp, Sina Books, 2011-11-24, Archived copy, May 17, 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130926184147weblink">weblink September 26, 2013, yes, Chiang Kai-shek's forces pushed as far as Chinchow (Jinzhou) by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the Shandong Peninsula that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists. The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full-scale war between CPC and KMT forces broke out on June 26. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.Hu, Jubin. [2003] (2003). Projecting a Nation: Chinese National Cinema Before 1949. Hong Kong University Press. {{ISBN|962-209-610-7}}.Resumed fighting (1946–1949)
Background and disposition of forces
| factoids | |
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Outbreak of war
File:Chaing Kai-shek's Strategy 1947.PNG|Situation in 1947File:Communist Offensives September through November 1948.PNG|Situation in the fall of 1948File:Communist Offensives November 1948 - January 1949.PNG|Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949File:Communist Offensives April - October 1949.PNG|Situation in April to October 1949As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government in Nanjing and the Communist Party failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in mainland China and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation" ({{zh |s = 解放战争 |p = Jiěfà ng Zhà nzhēng |links = no }}). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in North China with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops). This marked the first stage of the final phase in the Chinese Civil War.Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CPC executed a "passive defense" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CPC also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CPC. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.File:PLA Enters Peking.jpg|thumb|left|The PLA enters Beijing in the Pingjin CampaignPingjin CampaignIn March 1947 the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing the CPC capital of Yan'an.Lilley, James R. China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia. {{ISBN|1-58648-136-3}}. The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947 CPC troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the Dabie Mountains area, restored and developed the Central Plain. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and East China.By late 1948, the CPC eventually captured the northern cities of Shenyang and Changchun and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities, with the decisive Liaoshen Campaign.Westad, Odd Arne. [2003] (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-4484-X}}. p 192-193. The New 1st Army, regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CPC conducted a brutal six-month siege of Changchun that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.Pomfret, John. Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says. Associated Press; The Seattle Times. 2009-10-02. URLweblink Accessed: 2009-10-02. (Archived by WebCite atweblink(File:Renault FT-17 in ROC.jpg|thumb|Chinese FT tanks)The capture of large KMT units provided the CPC with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined-arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948 the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.Elleman, Bruce A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-21473-4}}. Following a fierce battle, the CPC captured Jinan and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east-central China for the CPC. The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.The Pingjin Campaign resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949.Finkelstein, David Michael. Ryan, Mark A. McDevitt, Michael. [2003] (2003). Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949. M.E. Sharpe. China. {{ISBN|0-7656-1088-4}}. p. 63. The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing Zhangjiakou, Tianjin along with its port and garrison at Dagu and Beiping. The CPC brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops. There were 40,000 CPC casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.File:Movement KMTretreat.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost Nanjing (Nanking) they next moved to Guangzhou (Canton), then to Chongqing (Chungking), Chengdu (Chengtu) and finally, Xichang (Sichang) before arriving in TaipeiTaipeiAfter achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CPC wiped out 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million veteran KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces. Stalin initially favored a coalition government in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CPC from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river.Donggil Kim, "Stalin and the Chinese Civil War." Cold War History 10.2 (2010): 185-202. Mao rejected Stalin's position and on 21 April, and began the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign. On 23 April they captured the KMT's capital, Nanjing. The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until October 15, Chongqing until November 25, and then Chengdu before retreating to Taiwan on December 10. By late 1949 the People's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet was left. In addition, the Ili Rebellion was a Soviet-backed revolt by the Second East Turkestan Republic against the KMT from 1944–49, as the Mongolians in the People's Republic were in a border dispute with the Republic of China. A Chinese Muslim Hui cavalry regiment, the 14th Tungan Cavalry, was sent by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the Pei-ta-shan Incident.BOOK,weblink Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949, Andrew D. W. Forbes, 1986, CUP Archive, Cambridge, England, 0-521-25514-7, 215, 2010-06-28, BOOK,weblink Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949, Andrew D. W. Forbes, 1986, CUP Archive, Cambridge, England, 0-521-25514-7, 225, 2010-06-28, The Kuomintang made several last-ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists.BOOK, 2011-12-27,weblink's%20far%20northwest.23%20A%20simultaneous%20proposal%20suggested%20that%2C%20with%20the%20support%20of%20the%20new%20Panchen%20Lama%20and%20his%20entourage%2C%20at%20least%20three%20army%20divisions%20of%20the%20anti-Communist%20Khampa%20Tibetans%20could%20be%20mustered%20in%20southwest%20China, Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west, Hsiao-ting Lin, 2010, Taylor & Francis, illustrated, Volume 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia, 117, China's far northwest.23 A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China., 0-415-58264-4, Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.BOOK, 2011-12-27,weblink Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west, Hsiao-ting Lin, 2010, Taylor & Francis, illustrated, Volume 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia, xxi, (tusi) from the Sichuan-Qinghai border; and Su Yonghe, a Khampa native-chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai- Tibetan border. According to Nationalist intelligence reports, these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars., 0-415-58264-4,Fighting subsides
File:PRCFounding.jpg|thumb|left|Mao ZedongMao ZedongOn 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated from mainland China to the island of Taiwan in December after the PLA advanced into the Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the fall of Chengdu on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. [2005] (2005). The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-34584-7}}. p. 376.(File:Hainan Island Campaign.png|thumb|Communist conquest of Hainan Island in 1950)A PRC attempt to take the ROC-controlled island of Quemoy was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou, halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan.Qi, Bangyuan. Wang, Dewei. Wang, David Der-wei. [2003] (2003). The Last of the Whampoa Breed: Stories of the Chinese Diaspora. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-13002-3}}. p. 2. In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.The Communists' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the Communist conquest of Hainan Island in April 1950, capture of Wanshan Islands off the Guangdong coast (May–August 1950), Zhoushan Island off Zhejiang (May 1950).MacFarquhar, Roderick. Fairbank, John K. Twitchett, Denis C. [1991] (1991). The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-24337-8}}. p. 820.Aftermath
{{See also|Political status of Taiwan|Two Chinas}}Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President Harry S. Truman announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.WEB, Harry S Truman, “Statement on Formosa,†January 5, 1950,weblink University of Southern California, 2017-05-07, The situation quickly changed after the onset of the Korean War in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet to sail to the Taiwan Strait as part of the containment policy against potential Communist advance.Bush, Richard C. [2005] (2005). Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait. Brookings Institution Press. {{ISBN|0-8157-1288-X}}File:Wuwangzaiju.JPG|thumb|left|"Forget not that you are in Jǔ"--a rock in Quemoy Island with Chiang Kai-shek's calligraphy signifying the retaking of one's homeland]]In June 1949 the ROC declared a "closure" of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of Min River in Fujian to the mouth of the Liao River in Liaoning.Tsang, Steve Yui-Sang Tsang. The Cold War's Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–1958. [2006] (2006). I.B. Tauris. {{ISBN|1-85043-842-0}}. p 155, p 115-120, p 139-145 Since mainland China's railroad network was underdeveloped, north-south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen.After losing mainland China, a group of approximately 3,000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to Burma and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China (1950–1958) and Campaign at the China–Burma Border. Their leader, Gen. Li Mi, was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of Yunnan. Initially, the US supported these remnants and the Central Intelligence Agency provided them with military aid. After the Burmese government appealed to the United Nations in 1953, the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists. By the end of 1954 nearly 6,000 soldiers had left Burma and General Li declared his army disbanded. However, thousands remained, and the ROC continued to supply and command them, even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China.After the ROC complained to the United Nations against the Soviet Union for violating the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance to support the CPC, the UN General Assembly Resolution 505 was adopted on 1 February 1952, condemning the Soviet Union.(File:Yangtze Crossing Monument - detail - P1070673.JPG|thumb|Monument in memory of the crossing of the Yangtze in Nanjing)Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in Fujian as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China. On 3 September 1954, the First Taiwan Strait Crisis began when the PLA started shelling Kinmen and threatened to take the Dachen Islands in Zhejiang. On 20 January 1955, the PLA took nearby Yijiangshan Island, with the entire ROC garrison of 720 troops killed or wounded defending the island. On January 24 of the same year, the United States Congress passed the Formosa Resolution authorizing the President to defend the ROC's offshore islands. The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment. The crisis was brought to a close during the Bandung conference.The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of Quemoy (by the PRC) and Amoy (by the ROC), and ended on November of the same year. PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai-shek's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided amphibious assault ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On September 7 the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing.The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1995–96 escalated tensions between both sides when the PRC tested a series of missiles not far from Taiwan, although, arguably, Beijing ran the test to shift the 1996 presidential election vote in favor of the KMT, already facing a challenge from the opposition Democratic Progressive Party which did not agree with the "One China Policy" shared by the CPC and KMT.BOOK, Alison Behnke, Taiwan in Pictures,weblink 1 January 2007, Twenty-First Century Books, 978-0-8225-7148-3,Political fallout
On 25 October 1971, the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC, which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai-shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.WEB,weblink Oct. 25, 1971 {{!, People's Republic of China In, Taiwan Out, at U.N. |date=2011-10-25|website=The Learning Network|language=en-US|access-date=2018-05-20}}By 1984 PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991.WEB, Taiwan flashpoint,weblink BBC News, 20 October 2017, Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term" during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders". The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union", which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents : the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethnic organisations." By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.Decisive Encounters By Westad, Odd Arne. Stanford University Press, 21 Mar. pp 292-297 2003 (Google Books).Under the new ROC president Lee Teng-hui, the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang's conquest to retake the mainland.With the election in 2000 of Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui-bian, a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CPC. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the 2005 Pan-Blue visit continued to increase.With the election of President Ma Ying-jeou (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high-level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the Chen-Chiang summit series. Although the Taiwan straits remain a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.Reasons for the Communist victory
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to its corner.Odd Arne Westad, Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 (2012) p. 291.Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948: "After the fall of Kaifeng our conditions worsened and became more serious. I now realized that the main reason our nation has collapsed, time after time throughout our history, was not because of superior power used by our external enemies, but because of disintegration and rot from within."WEB,weblink Hoover's new archival acquisitions shed light on Chinese history, Trei, Lisa, 2005-03-09, Stanford University, en, 2019-07-11, The USSR generally supported Chiang's forces. Stalin distrusted Mao, tried to block him from leadership as late as 1942, and worried that Mao would become an independent rival force in world communism.BOOK, Helen, Rappaport, Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion,weblink 1999, ABC-CLIO, 36, Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the Marshall Mission, and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruptionWEB,weblink Some Recent American Interpretations of Sino-American Relations of the Late 1940's: An Assessment, Sun, Tung-hsun, 1982, Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica, 2018-11-22, (such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by H.H. Kung and T. V. Soong's family)T. V. SOONG - A REGISTER OF HIS PAPERS IN THE HOOVER INSTITUTION ARCHIVES media.hoover.orgWEB,weblink 轉載：　æœæœˆç¬™çš„1931 　（6） - 五湖煙景的日誌 - å€å¯è¦ª, big5.backchina.com, zh-Hant, 2018-11-23, and KMT's military setback in Northeast China.Communist land reform policy promised poor peasants farmland from their landlords, ensuring popular support for the PLA.The main advantage of the Chinese Communist Party was the "extraordinary cohesion" within the top level of its leadership. These skills were not only secured from defections that came about during difficult times but also coupled with "communications and top level debates over tactics". A big addition to this was the charismatic style of leadership of Mao Zedong which created a "unity of purpose" and a "unity of command" which the KMT lacked majorly. Apart from that the CPC had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit; this was also derived from their propaganda skills that had also been decentralised successfully. By "portraying their opponents as enemies of all groups of Chinese" and itself as "defenders of the nation" and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).Decisive Encounters By Westad, Odd Arne. Stanford University Press, 2003 (Google Books).In the Chinese Civil War after 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of price controls by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 194weblink and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities' middle classes. In the meantime, the Communists continued their relentless land reform (land redistribution) programs to win the support of the population in the countryside.Course of the war
Chinese Civil War (first phase, 1927-1937) {|
- 1927–37 — Ten Year's Civil War
- 1927 — Nanchang Uprising
- 1927 — Autumn Harvest Uprising
- 1927 — Guangzhou Uprising
- 1930–31 — First Encirclement Campaign
- 1931 — Second Encirclement Campaign|
- 1931 — Third Encirclement Campaign
- 1932 — Fourth Encirclement Campaign
- 1933–34 — Fifth Encirclement Campaign
- 1934–36 — Long March
- 1935 — Battle of Luding Bridge
Second Sino-Japanese War, 1931–45 {| valigntop|
- 1931 — Mukden Incident
- 1931–32 — Japanese invasion of Manchuria
- 1931 — Jiangqiao Campaign
- 1931 — Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge
- 1932 — Defense of Harbin
- 1932 — January 28 Incident
- 1931–42 — Pacification of Manchukuo
- 1933 — Defense of the Great Wall
- 1933 — Battle of Rehe
- 1933–36 — Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–36)
- 1936 — Suiyuan Campaign
- 1937 — Marco Polo Bridge Incident
- 1937 — Battle of Beiping-Tianjin
- 1937 — Battle of Shanghai
- 1937 — Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation
- 1937 — Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation
- 1937 — Battle of Pingxingguan
- 1937 — Battle of Xinkou
- 1937 — Battle of Taiyuan
- 1937 — Battle of Nanjing|
- 1938 — Battle of Xuzhou
- 1938 — Battle of Taierzhuang
- 1938 — Battle of Wuhan
- 1938 — Battle of Wanjialing
- 1939 — Hainan Island Operation
- 1939 — Battle of Nanchang
- 1939 — Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang
- 1939 — Battle of Changsha
- 1939 — Battle of South Guangxi
- 1939 — Battle of Kunlun Pass
- 1940 — Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang
- 1940 — Hundred Regiments Offensive
- 1940 — Central Hubei Operation|
- 1941 — Battle of Shanggao
- 1941 — Western Hubei Operation
- 1941 — Battle of South Shanxi
- 1941 — Battle of Changsha
- 1942 — Battle of Changsha
- 1942 — Battle of Toungoo
- 1942 — Battle of Yenangyaung
- 1942 — Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign
- 1942 — Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road
- 1943 — Battle of West Hubei
- 1943 — Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan
- 1943 — Battle of Changde
- 1944 — Operation Ichi-Go
- 1944 — Battle of Changsha
- 1944 — Battle of Guilin-Liuzhou
- 1944 — Battle of Mount Song
- 1945 — Battle of West Henan–North Hubei
- 1945 — Battle of West Hunan
- 1945 — Second Guangxi Campaign
- 1945 — Soviet invasion of Manchuria
Chinese Civil War (second phase, 1945–49) and aftermath
(File:Guèrra Civila Chinesa (1946-1950).png|thumb|240px|Map of the Chinese Civil War (1946-1950))Conflicts in the Chinese Civil War in the post-World War II era are listed chronologically by the starting dates. 1945
- July 21, 1945 – August 8, 1945 — Yetaishan Campaign
- August 13, 1945 – August 19, 1945 — Southern Jiangsu Campaign
- August 13, 1945 – August 16, 1945 — Counteroffensive in Eastern Hubei
- August 15, 1945 – August 23, 1945 — Battle of Baoying
- August 16, 1945 – August 19, 1945 — Battle of Yongjiazhen
- August 17, 1945 – August 27, 1945 — Battle of Tianmen
- August 17, 1945 – August 25, 1945 — Pingyu Campaign
- August 17, 1945 – September 11, 1945 — Linyi Campaign
- August 24, 1945 – August 24, 1945 — Battle of Wuhe
- August 26, 1945 – August 27, 1945 — Battle of Yinji
- August 26, 1945 – September 22, 1945 — Huaiyin-Huai'an Campaign
- August 29, 1945 – September 1, 1945 — Xinghua Campaign
- September 1, 1945 – September 13, 1945 — Battle of Dazhongji
- September 4, 1945 – September 5, 1945 — Battle of Lingbi
- September 5, 1945 – September 8, 1945 — Zhucheng Campaign
- September 5, 1945 – September 22, 1945 — Shanghe Campaign
- September 6, 1945 – September 9, 1945 — Battle of Lishi
- September 7, 1945 – September 10, 1945 — Pingdu Campaign
- September 8, 1945 – September 12, 1945 — Taixing Campaign
- September 10, 1945 – October 12, 1945 — Shangdang Campaign
- September 13, 1945 – September 17, 1945 — Wuli Campaign
- September 18, 1945 – September 18, 1945 — Battle of Xiangshuikou
- September 21, 1945 – September 21, 1945 — Battle of Rugao
- September 29, 1945 – November 2, 1945 — Weixian-Guangling-Nuanquan Campaign
- October, 1945 – October, 1945 — Battle of Shicun
- October 3, 1945 – November 10, 1945 — Yancheng Campaign
- October 17, 1945 – December 14, 1945 — Tongbai Campaign
- October 18, 1945 – October 18, 1945 — Battle of Houmajia
- October 22, 1945 – November 2, 1945 — Handan Campaign
- October 25, 1945 – November 16, 1945 — Battle of Shanhai Pass
- October 26, 1945 – October 30, 1945 — Campaign along the Datong-Puzhou Railway
- November, 1945 – April, 1947 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northeast China
- November 3, 1945 – November 4, 1945 — Battle of Jiehezhen
- December 19, 1945 – December 21, 1945 — Battle of Shaobo
- December 19, 1945 – December 26, 1945 — Gaoyou-Shaobo Campaign
- December 21, 1945 – December 30, 1945 — Battle of Tangtou-Guocun
1946
- January 19, 1946 – January 26, 1946 — Houma Campaign
- March 15, 1946 – March 17, 1946 — Battle of Siping
- April 10, 1946 – April 15, 1946 — Jinjiatun Campaign
- April 17, 1946 – May 19, 1946 — Campaign to Defend Siping
- June 22, 1946 – August 31, 1946 — Campaign of the North China Plain Pocket
- June 12, 1946 – September 1, 1946 — Campaign along the Southern Section of Datong-Puzhou Railway
- July 31, 1946 – September 16, 1946 — Datong-Jining Campaign
- August 10, 1946 – August 22, 1946 — Longhai Campaign
- August 14, 1946 – September 1, 1946 — Datong-Puzhou Campaign
- August 21, 1946 – September 22, 1946 — Battle of Huaiyin-Huai'an
- August 25, 1946 – August, 1946 — Battle of Rugao-Huangqiao
- September 2, 1946 – September 8, 1946 — Dingtao Campaign
- September 22, 1946 – September 24, 1946 — Linfen-Fushan Campaign
- October 10, 1946 – October 20, 1946 — Battle of Kalgan
- November 10, 1946 – November 11, 1946 — Battle of Nanluo-Beiluo
- November 22, 1946 – January 1, 1947 — Lüliang Campaign
- December 17, 1946 – April 1, 1947 — Linjiang Campaign
- December 31, 1946 – January 30, 1947 — Battle of Guanzhong
- Pei-ta-shan Incident
1947
- January 21, 1947 – January 28, 1947 — Campaign to the South of Baoding
- April 24, 1947 – April 25, 1947 — Battle of Niangziguan
- April 27, 1947 – April 28, 1947 — Battle of Tang'erli
- May 13, 1947 – May 16, 1947 — Menglianggu Campaign
- May 13, 1947 – July 1, 1947 — Summer Offensive of 1947 in Northeast China
- May 28, 1947 – May 31, 1947 — Heshui Campaign
- June 11, 1947 – March 13, 1948 — Siping Campaign
- June 26, 1947 – July 6, 1947 — Campaign to the North of Baoding
- July 17, 1947 – July 29, 1947 — Nanma-Linqu Campaign
- August 13, 1947 – August 18, 1947 — Meridian Ridge Campaign
- September 2, 1947 – September 12, 1947 — Campaign to the North of Daqing River
- September 14, 1947 – November 5, 1947 — Autumn Offensive of 1947 in Northeast China
- October 2, 1947 – October 10, 1947 — Sahe Mountain Campaign
- October 29, 1947 – November 25, 1947 — Campaign in the Eastern Foothills of the Funiu Mountains
- December 15, 1947 – March 15, 1948 — Winter Offensive of 1947 in Northeast China
- December 7, 1947 – December 9, 1947 — Battle of Phoenix Peak
- December 9, 1947 – June 15, 1948 — Western Tai'an Campaign
- December 11, 1947 – January, 1948 — Counter-Eradication Campaign in Dabieshan
- December 20, 1947 – June 1948 — Jing Shan-Zhongxiang Campaign
1948
- January 2, 1948 – January 7, 1948 — Gongzhutun Campaign
- March 7, 1948 – May 18, 1948 — Linfen Campaign
- March 11, 1948 – March 21, 1948 — Zhoucun-Zhangdian Campaign
- May 12, 1948 – June 25, 1948 — Hebei-Rehe-Chahar Campaign
- May 23, 1948 – October 19, 1948 — Siege of Changchun
- May 29, 1948 – July 18, 1948 — Yanzhou Campaign
- June 17, 1948 – June 19, 1948 — Battle of Shangcai
- September 12, 1948 – November 12, 1948 — Liaoshen Campaign
- October 5, 1948 – April 24, 1949 — Taiyuan Campaign
- October 7, 1948 – October 15, 1948 — Battle of Jinzhou
- October 10, 1948 – October 15, 1948 — Battle of Tashan
- November 6, 1948 – January 10, 1949 — Huaihai Campaign
- November 15, 1948 – January 11, 1949 — Battle of Jiulianshan
- November 22, 1948 – December 15, 1948 — Shuangduiji Campaign
- November 29, 1948 – January 31, 1949 — Pingjin Campaign
- Pei-ta-shan Incident
1949
- January 3, 1949 – January 15, 1949 — Tianjin Campaign
- April, 1949 – June, 1950 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northern China
- April, 1949 – June, 1953 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Central and Southern China
- May 12, 1949 – June 2, 1949 — Shanghai Campaign
- May 17, 1949 – June 16, 1949 — Xianyang Campaign
- August 9, 1949 – August 27, 1949 — Lanzhou Campaign
- August 9, 1949 – December, 1953 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Eastern China
- August 24, 1949 – September, 1951 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Fujian
- September 5, 1949 – September 24, 1949 — Ningxia Campaign
- September 5, 1949 – March, 1950 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Dabieshan
- October 25, 1949 – October 27, 1949 — Battle of Guningtou
- November, 1949 – July, 1953 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northwestern China
- November 1, 1949 – November 28, 1949 — Campaign to the North of Nanchuan County
- November 3, 1949 – November 5, 1949 — Battle of Dengbu Island
- November 17. 1949 – December 1, 1949 — Bobai Campaign
- December 3, 1949 – December 26, 1949 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Lianyang
- December 6, 1949 – December 7, 1949 — Battle of Liangjiashui
- December 7, 1949 – December 14, 1949 — Battle of Lianyang
- December 17, 1949 – December 18, 1949 — Battle of Jianmenguan
1950
- January, 1950 – June, 1955 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Wuping
- January 15, 1950 – May 1951 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Guangxi
- January 19, 1950 – January 31, 1950 — Battle of Bamianshan
- February, 1950 – December 1953 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Southwestern China
- February 4, 1950 – December, 1950 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Longquan
- February 14, 1950 – February 20, 1950 — Battle of Tianquan
- March 3, 1950 – March 3, 1950 — Battle of Nan'ao Island
- March 5, 1950 – May 1, 1950 — Landing Operation on Hainan Island
- March 29, 1950 – May 7, 1950 — Battle of Yiwu
- May 11, 1950 – May 11, 1950 — Battle of Dongshan Island
- May 25, 1950 – August 7, 1950 — Wanshan Archipelago Campaign
- August 9, 1950 – August 9, 1950 — Battle of Nanpéng Island
- September, 1950 – January, 1951 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northern Guangdong
- September 22, 1950 – November 29, 1950 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in northeastern Guizhou
- October 15, 1950 – November, 1950 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in the Border Region of Hunan–Hubei–Sichuan
- October 15, 1950 – December, 1950 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Western Hunan
- December 13, 1950 – February, 1951 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Shiwandashan
- December 20, 1950 – February, 1951 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Liuwandashan
1950–58
1951
- January 8, 1951 – February, 1951 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Yaoshan
- April 15, 1951 – September, 1951, — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Western Guangxi
1952
- April 11, 1952 – April 15, 1952 — Battle of Nanri Island
- June 13, 1952 – September 20, 1952 — Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Heishui
- September 20, 1952 – October 20, 1952 — Battle of NanpÄ“ng Archipelago
1953
- May 29, 1953 – May 29, 1953 — Battle of Dalushan Islands
- July 16, 1953 – July 18, 1953 — Dongshan Island Campaign
1955
- January 18, 1955 – January 20, 1955 — Battle of Yijiangshan Islands
- January 19, 1955 – February 26, 1955 — Battle of Dachen Archipelago
1960
- November 14, 1960 – February 9, 1961 — Campaign at the China-Burma Border
Atrocities
During the war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides.Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949. Atrocities include deaths from forced conscription and massacres.Valentino, Benjamin A. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. December 8, 2005. p88{{better source|reason=This source, or at least page 88 of the source, just gives the 1.8m-3.5m death toll estimate for "Communist terror in Chinese civil war" (what about KMT killings, which we claim we deliberately committed in the previous sentence). It also doesn't appear to mention forced conscription or massacres.|date=October 2017}} See also
Notes
{{NoteFoot}} References
{{Reflist}} External links
{{Commons category}}
- Summary of Chinese Civil War 1946–1949
- Chinese Civil War 1945–1950
- "Armored Car Like Oil Tanker Used by Chinese" Popular Mechanics, March 1930 article and photo of armoured train of Chinese Civil War
- Topographic maps of China Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service, 1954–
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090326011824weblink">Operational Art in the Chinese PLA’s Huai Hai Campaign
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20081121142532weblink">Postal Stamps of the Chinese Post-Civil War Era
{{-}}{{Chinese Civil War}}{{Cold War}}{{Cross-Strait relations}}{{China topics}}{{Taiwan topics}}
- content above as imported from Wikipedia
- "Chinese Civil War" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
- time: 4:54pm EDT - Thu, Aug 22 2019
- 1931 — Mukden Incident
- 1931–32 — Japanese invasion of Manchuria
- 1931 — Jiangqiao Campaign
- 1931 — Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge
- 1932 — Defense of Harbin
- 1932 — January 28 Incident
- 1931–42 — Pacification of Manchukuo
- 1933 — Defense of the Great Wall
- 1933 — Battle of Rehe
- 1933–36 — Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–36)
- 1936 — Suiyuan Campaign
- 1937 — Marco Polo Bridge Incident
- 1937 — Battle of Beiping-Tianjin
- 1937 — Battle of Shanghai
- 1937 — Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation
- 1937 — Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation
- 1937 — Battle of Pingxingguan
- 1937 — Battle of Xinkou
- 1937 — Battle of Taiyuan
- 1937 — Battle of Nanjing|
- 1938 — Battle of Xuzhou
- 1938 — Battle of Taierzhuang
- 1938 — Battle of Wuhan
- 1938 — Battle of Wanjialing
- 1939 — Hainan Island Operation
- 1939 — Battle of Nanchang
- 1939 — Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang
- 1939 — Battle of Changsha
- 1939 — Battle of South Guangxi
- 1939 — Battle of Kunlun Pass
- 1940 — Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang
- 1940 — Hundred Regiments Offensive
- 1940 — Central Hubei Operation|
- 1941 — Battle of Shanggao
- 1941 — Western Hubei Operation
- 1941 — Battle of South Shanxi
- 1941 — Battle of Changsha
- 1942 — Battle of Changsha
- 1942 — Battle of Toungoo
- 1942 — Battle of Yenangyaung
- 1942 — Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign
- 1942 — Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road
- 1943 — Battle of West Hubei
- 1943 — Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan
- 1943 — Battle of Changde
- 1944 — Operation Ichi-Go
- 1944 — Battle of Changsha
- 1944 — Battle of Guilin-Liuzhou
- 1944 — Battle of Mount Song
- 1945 — Battle of West Henan–North Hubei
- 1945 — Battle of West Hunan
- 1945 — Second Guangxi Campaign
- 1945 — Soviet invasion of Manchuria
- August 10, 1946 – August 22, 1946 — Longhai Campaign
- "Chinese Civil War" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
- time: 4:54pm EDT - Thu, Aug 22 2019
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